The Strategic Studies Unit of the Arab Centre for Research and Policy Studies convened its fifth annual conference, titled “Defence Strategies of Small States and Smaller Forces: Tactical Adaptations and Operational Innovations” on 23-25 February 2025, with the participation of 36 leading scholars and expert practitioners from 28 countries around the world.
Across 10 panels, the conference examined the spectrum of security challenges and responses available to 30 cases of smaller states and substate forces. Drawing from numerous comparative and regional case studies – from the Caribbean to Southeast Asia, including the Gulf and the wider Middle East region – participants analysed the evolving nature of defence practices in small states and the innovative means they employ to confront emerging security threats.
The idea of the conference came to fill some of the knowledge gaps in the literature on the subject, including definitions, as the literature on the subject is still limited compared to the literature on the economies of countries and their international relations. The three main objectives of the conference: First, to provide multi-level analyses - from tactical innovations to strategic transformations in the seven fields of war (land, sea, air, space, information-intelligence, cyber, and electro-magnetism), linking field experiences on the front lines on the one hand, and academic discussions on the other. Second, to provide comparative lessons from the experiences of regular armies of small (or smaller) states and irregular non-state powers, demonstrating how similar challenges – such as limited manpower, economic resources, or geopolitical influence – produce diverse and sometimes surprising strategic adaptations, as well as operational and tactical innovations. Third, to explore how these lessons and perspectives can inform the strategic defence policy agenda and contribute to national, regional, and international security.
Abdelwahab El-Affendi chaired the keynote panel, in which Anthony King, Professor of War Studies and Director of the Strategy and Security Institute at the University of Exeter, began with his lecture, “Small States in Modern Wars: The Roles of Urban Warfare and Artificial Intelligence in Strategic Defence”. He argued that, as Ukraine has showed, even a relatively small military power may be very capable of defending itself, if it harnesses the defensive potential of urban areas, enabled by AI. Omar Ashour, who is also Professor of Security and Military Studies and the Founder of the Critical Security Studies Programme at the Doha Institute for Graduate Studies, followed with his lecture, “Hybrid Defence for Small(er) States: Lessons in Combat Effectiveness from Ukraine to Gaza”, offering strategic insights into the evolving character of contemporary warfare and its implications for defence policies and national security strategies.
The first panel, “Strategic Endurance: Gaza and Modern Warfare Lessons”, was chaired by Ayat Hamadan. Speaking first, Bilal Shalash presented “‘A History-Making Vanguard’: Palestinian Resistance Organizations as Smaller Forces (1965-2025)”, in which he examined Palestinian resistance organizations as smaller powers across the theoretical, strategic, and operational-tactical levels. Speaking next, Mahmoud Muhareb presented “The Israeli Army’s Reserve Forces: Reasons for Their Decline in Quantity and Quality”, explaining how the decline in Israeli reserve forces has weakened the Israeli army’s combat readiness and overall military effectiveness. Speaking next, Majd Abuamer presented “How Hamas Defends: Combat Tactics and Operational Innovations in the 2023-2024 Gaza War”, examining how Hamas directed its combat doctrine away from Israeli strengths, forcing the Israeli military to change its strategy by engaging in ground warfare instead of relying solely on airstrikes. Wrapping up the session, Bashir Saade presented “The Resilience of Hezbollah’s Islamic Resistance”, focusing on the importance of martyrdom in instilling very practical, logistical, and military implications.
After a coffee break, Aicha Elbasri chaired a panel on “The Role of Women in Small(er) State Defences”. Speaking first, Yara Nassar, presented “Women in the Palestinian Armed Resistance: Trajectories and Paths”, which traced the transformations that reflect the evolving role of women in Palestinian resistance, from logistical support to direct military engagement, in an ongoing and dynamic struggle. Fatima Al-Nuaimi followed with “The Role of Women in the Qatari Armed Forces: Opportunities and Challenges”, in which she used an empirical sociological approach, to address the integration of women into Qatar’s military. Mariia Chekh, a Ukrainian soldier who was captured by the Russian army in 2022, spoke next on “Women in the Ukrainian Armed Forces: Evolution, Challenges, and Field Experiences”. She argued that gender-inclusive force structures are indispensable for holistic operational capabilities, reinforcing Ukraine’s – as well as smaller states’ – national defence posture amidst ongoing hostilities and ever-evolving strategic imperatives. Ivana Kovačević Bekić rounded off the panel with “Women in the Defence System of the Republic of Croatia”, analysing the role and rights of women in Croatia’s defence institutions, and how they contribute to the defence of Croatia.
After the lunch break, Haider Saeed chaired the third panel, “Securing the Gulf: Multi-Domain Adaptions and Innovations”. Speaking first, Talab Alfleej presented “Kuwait’s Defence Strategy: Toward a Military Doctrine That Defeats Challenges”, examining the structure of Kuwait’s armed forces, the challenges they face, and the impact of the strategic environment on their organization. Muhammad bin Said Al-Futaisi spoke on “Oman’s Strategic Resilience”, and assessed its defence strategy, designed to navigate a turbulent regional landscape marked by crises such as the Iranian nuclear issue, the conflict in Yemen, maritime piracy, and emerging threats like terrorism, gray zone operations, etc. Khalifa Al-Kuwari followed with “Cyber Defence of Small Gulf States: The Cases of Qatar and the United Arab Emirates”, analysing how small Gulf states navigate the complex legal landscape of cyber defence through the lens of international law. The final paper of the day was presented by Rashid Al-Mohanadi, “From Buyers to Builders: The GCC’s Quest for a Homegrown Defence Industry”, who provided an overview of the GCC defence industry, analysing the defence industrial policies and investments, namely of Saudi Arabia, the UAE, and Qatar, while looking into the limited initiatives of Oman and Kuwait.
The second day featured three sessions devoted to studying cases from Ukraine, Estonia, Qatar, Kuwait, Georgia, Azerbaijan, and Armenia.
The day opened with a panel on “Ukraine and Smaller Forces’ Dilemmas”, chaired by Christina M. Paschyn. Viacheslav Semenenko presented first with his paper “Ukraine: Warfare in the Land and Air Domains”, delineating strategies for mitigating Russian superiority in both Land and Air operations, as well as for conducting focused multi-domain operations, drawing upon insights from the 2014-2024 Russian War on Ukraine. Hanna Shelest presented “The Power of Asymmetry: Ukraine’s Maritime Strategy as a Model for Small State Naval Defence”, examining how Ukraine effectively dismantled a third of Russia’s navy and significantly degraded its maritime capabilities, without even having a traditional fleet, using unmanned aerial and surface vehicles and creative, asymmetric tactics. Oleksandr Bogomolov connected via Zoom to present “How Ukraine Defends: From Societal Resilience to Integrated Defence”, arguing that Ukraine has demonstrated a remarkable societal and economic resilience and ability to achieve success. Speaking next, in “Small State Defence: An Estonian Perspective”, Henrik Praks argued that a small state can defend against military threats only with citizens who have a high will to defend, are equipped and trained, and whose actions are supported by integrated allies.
The next panel, “Smart Defence: Qatar’s Approach to Security”, was chaired by Rashid Hamad Al-Naimi. Khalid Al-Khulaifi presented “The Smart Power of Small States: Qatar Alliance Building and Deterring Strategies”, suggesting that a rational comprehension of small states’ smart power and applicability presents a vital, if not urgent mission for enhanced global peace and security. Danah Alenezi spoke next on “Soft-Power Strategies of Small States: A Comparative Study of Kuwait and Qatar”, comparing the soft power tools of Kuwait and Qatar, including diplomacy, media, education, sports, and humanitarian aid. Speaking next, Abdulrahman Al-Kuwari presented “The Gendarmerie as a Strategic Option: Enhancing Qatar’s Defence Capabilities amid Manpower Challenges”, rounding off the panel by proposing a strategic framework for integrating a gendarmerie force as a reserve component of the Qatari Armed Forces.
The last panel of the day, “Caucasus Confrontations: Tactical Evolutions and Strategic Lessons”, was chaired by Saban Kardash. Robert E. Hamilton presented “The 2008 Russia-Georgia War”, arguing that a Russian victory and military occupation of the Georgian regions of South Ossetia and Abkhazia in 2008 was predictable, but not inevitable. Vasif Huseynov followed with “Azerbaijan-Türkiye-Pakistan Trilateral Format and the Karabakh War”, which analysed the role of this trilateral cooperation in Azerbaijan’s efforts to seize the Karabakh region, examining its impact on Azerbaijan’s defence strategy and armament before and during the Second Karabakh War (2020). Finally, Leonid Nersisyan presented “Armenia’s Defence Strategy and the Second Nagorno-Karabakh War”, contending that in light of the military defeat in Second Nagorno-Karabakh War, Armenian Armed Forces is undergoing serious transformation with an attempt to create a working deterrence mechanism against Azerbaijan.
The final day of the ACRPS Strategic Studies Unit Fifth Annual Conference, “Defence Strategies of Small States and Smaller Forces: Tactical Adaptations and Operational Innovations”, took place on 25 February 2025. The third day featured three sessions devoted to studying cases from East Asia, the Baltics and Scandinavia, and the Balkans and Caribbean.
The day opened with a panel on “Asia’s Security Landscape: Enduring and Evolving Strategies”, chaired by Hani Awad. Fu-Kuo Liu began with “Beefing up Taiwan’s Defence Capability in Countering Potential Conflict in the Taiwan Strait”, which argues that Taiwan will have to select adequate approaches to strengthen defence capabilities to deter potential conflict, in order to face up to a more challenging strategic environment. Insoo Kim followed with “South Korea’s Defence Strategy and Its Dilemma: Alliance or Self-reliance First?”, outlining why an alliance with the United States is indispensable for deterring North Korea’s threat of war and the process through which the weakening of US security commitments and the subsequent pursuit of an independent defence policy led to the development of a world-class defence industry. Inbum Chun followed with “North Korea’s Military Capabilities: From East Asia to East Europe”, arguing that North Korean collaboration with Moscow bolsters Russia’s military efforts while providing North Korean forces with practical battlefield experience, potentially influencing future military strategies and regional security dynamics. Ong Wei Chong rounded off the panel with his paper “Singapore’s Total Defence at Forty: An Evolutionary Response to Hybrid Threats and Grey Zone Ambiguity”, addressing how TD in Singapore has evolved over the last 40 years to address hybrid threats and adversaries that thrive in the ambiguity of the grey zone.
The next panel, “Nordic Shields: Baltic and Scandinavian Defence Strategies”, was chaired by Ghassan Elkahlout. Margarita Šešelgytė presented “Guarding the Frontline: Lithuania’s Defence Policy in the Context of Russian Geopolitical Assertiveness”, highlighting Lithuania’s focus on air defence, total defence, and expedited procurement processes to address emerging threats. Sintija Broka followed with “Small-States’ Defence Strategies: The Transformation of Latvian Armed Forces”, underscoring how Latvia effectively balances alliance dependence with domestic readiness to address evolving threats, offering insights into small-state defence adaptation in contemporary geopolitics. Mikael Weissmann then spoke on “Sweden’s Alliance and Defence Transformations: Strategic Shifts in the Wake of Russia’s 2022 Invasion of Ukraine”, assessing defence transformations to providesinsights into how small states can effectively respond to evolving threats through strategic alliances and military reforms.
The last panel, “Forgotten Performances: The Balkans and Caribbean in Focus”, was chaired by Adham Saouli. Gordan Akrap presented “How Croatia Won the Homeland War: Organization and Transformation of Armed Forces and Intelligence Community”, relying on his experience as a direct witness and participant in the organization and transformation of the armed forces and intelligence community during low- and high-intensity conflicts. Zoran Ivanov spoke on “Small State Internal Defence and Intelligence Resilience: How North Macedonia avoided a Civil War?”, revealing how Macedonia navigated a volatile situation to restore stability without descending into widespread violence. Ramadan Ilazi next presented “Post-Conflict Military-Building Process in the Western Balkans: A Comparative Analysis of the Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republic of Kosovo”, offering policy recommendations to enhance the civilian-military relations, and regional interoperability of these forces, to strengthen their roles as pillars of peace and security in the Western Balkans. Finally, Rut Diamint rounded off the panel and the conference with “The Military in Cuba”, exploring the history and the transformation of Cuban Revolutionary Armed Forces and its role in the present day.
Concluding the conference, Omar Ashour, Director of the Strategic Studies Unit at the Arab Center, indicated that the conference outcomes will be published in a book titled The Defence of Small States: Strategic Transformations and Tactical Adaptations, which will include selected chapters from the conference papers, to be published in Arabic by the Arab Center, and in English by a Western university publishing house. Several more research papers will be published under the “Strategic Papers” series published on the Arab Center website.
Strategic Studies Unit Conference
