Can we Speak of a “Coptic Question” in Egypt?

*Research paper supervised by Dr. Azmi Bishara

We, at the Arab Center for Research and Policy Studies (ACRPS) had begun preparing a report centered on the following query: is there an open "Coptic Question" in Egypt that needs to be dealt with. The motive behind the report was the successive Coptic protests during the second half of 2010, which reached their apex following the bombing of the Two Martyr-Saints Church in Alexandria. After the outbreak of the January 25 Egyptian Revolution, which featured an unprecedented solidarity within the Egyptian national society in the struggle against the ruling regime, we decided to delay the publication of the report, or even shelve it permanently. As a sign of the reigning optimism of that period, we should mention a comment by the supervisor of this report to the effect that while Arab regimes consistently bring out the worst in us, struggle against them brings out our best qualities . These sentiments rose, in part, from the trans-sectarian solidarity exhibited by Egyptians at the time, as well as the aesthetics of the revolution.

• BACKGROUND TO THE REPORT     
• ON THE SUL INCIDENT
• INITIAL CONCLUSIONS
• INTRODUCTION
• THE COPTS IN EGYPT’S MODERN HISTORY      
• SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONDITIONS     
• COPTS AND CITIZENSHIP   
• THE LEGAL SYSTEM AND PERSONAL STATUS LAWS      
• PERSONAL STATUS LAWS FOR THE COPTS
• ECHOES OF THE ALEXANDRIA BOMBING (JANUARY 2011)    
• SALAFISM IN EGYPT AND ITS RELATIONSHIP WITH THE COPTS   
• CONCLUSION

Background to the Report

We, at the Arab Center for Research and Policy Studies (ACRPS) had begun preparing a report centered on the following query: is there an open "Coptic Question" in Egypt that needs to be dealt with. The motive behind the report was the successive Coptic protests during the second half of 2010, which reached their apex following the bombing of the Two Martyr-Saints Church in Alexandria. After the outbreak of the January 25 Egyptian Revolution, which featured an unprecedented solidarity within the Egyptian national society in the struggle against the ruling regime, we decided to delay the publication of the report, or even shelve it permanently. As a sign of the reigning optimism of that period, we should mention a comment by the supervisor of this report to the effect that while Arab regimes consistently bring out the worst in us, struggle against them brings out our best qualities[1]. These sentiments rose, in part, from the trans-sectarian solidarity exhibited by Egyptians at the time, as well as the aesthetics of the revolution.

We did not want to publish material that would bring out controversies that, we believed, could be resolved in the future through participative democratic citizenship, and - in the process - risk perturbing the national unity borne out of the revolution with relatively peripheral issues.

We had reached the conclusion that there is indeed a Coptic Question in Egypt, and it is a genuine issue, not the result of foreign conspiracies or Islamic incitement, nor the mere product of an isolationist clerical institution. We concluded that dealing with the question is a necessary condition for resolving all these other problems that feed into it. This also means that any prospective democratic regime in Egypt cannot be content to stress the rhetoric of "fraternity among sects," but must deal with immediate practical matters. However, we also cannot place the entire host of latent problems on the table of the revolution and its future democratic regime all at once.

What pressed us to re-assess our position and proceed with the publication of this report was the incident in Sul, a village in Atfeeh County in the Helwan Governorate (90 kilometers from Cairo), on March 4th, 2011, when a church was demolished and a nine-day sit-in in front of the Broadcasting and Television building ensued - in addition to a swarm of condemnations from the political powers. We are publishing this text with minor adjustments that were made in light of the results of the Great Egyptian Revolution.

On the Sul Incident

According to the more credible narrative, a love affair between a young Christian man and a Muslim woman flared a state of public anger in the village of Sul. Following the public reaction, the Christian man left the village along with his family. But events escalated when the cousin of the woman's father came to the village with the intent of killing her, under the pretext of preserving the honor of the family. This led to an armed clash between the two men (the cousin and the father) which ended with both of them dead. After their burial, on March 4, their family marched on the Church of the Two Martyr-Saints at ten in the evening, burning and destroying it.

Until this point in the story, we find all the typical components of sedition that flares up occasionally between civic communities (whether they were demarcated by sects or other social categories) when an individual conflict mutates into a clash between two groups whose leaderships stress the sectarian identity of one group in opposition to another, and stimulate feelings of injustice and victimization, linking them to a grand narrative of eternal victimhood.

When it comes to "honor cases," touching upon women as representing the vulnerable spot of misogynistic societies, the individual issue takes a collective dimension of "honor". The same concept applied to the debates about an Egyptian Christian woman who converted to Islam and was subsequently held by clerical authorities in a convent to prevent her from forsaking her religion (during July 2010). This was followed by demonstrations - with an Islamic character - that claimed to defend the right of Coptic Camellia to adopt Islam[2], but were in fact a form of mobilization of identity politics within Egyptian society. Mobilization and agitation around these kinds of controversies tend to produce a sectarian crowd that resembles its leadership.

What was new with the Sul incident was that it saw the emergence of new and alternative interpretations, with the Revolution's activists reacting to the event; most of these interpretations centered on the notion that the incident was part of a string of mysterious attempts to foment sectarian strife. Some voiced suspicions that these incidents were the work of a "fifth column" and "the militias of the counter-revolution," given that sectarian sedition would be the most direct way to abort the January 25 Revolution.

The Coalition of the January 25 Youth issued a statement on March 9thIkhwan (Muslim Brotherhood) who claimed that "the rabble of the former regime and its National Party and State Security are behind the flaring of sectarian strife between Muslims and Christians".[3] accusing "the State Security officers who remain at large and the remnants of the regime" of being the inciters and fomenters of sedition, the statement also directly criticized the Army for "standing idle" while "the remnants of the regime disrupt and sabotage the security of the homeland and its citizens". This was the position of the

Furthermore, press reports were published in several Egyptian papers implying that those behind the recent sectarian incidents were figures from among the State Security officials who persist in their old method of imposing control by sowing of chaos and conflict. The protesters in Tahrir Square found those claims credible and sent a letter to the Prime Minister Dr. Isam Sharaf warning that State Security officers and National Party bosses have planted sedition in order to divert the public opinion's attention in the hope of evading accountability. The same argument was echoed by the "United Copts" website, which featured testimonials of locals who claimed that among the suspects was "a State Security informant, and he was the one urging the other suspects to attack the church".[4]

While such events previously drew articles of sectarian agitation from some opinion columnists, it is noteworthy that a consensus emerged after the revolution among opinion leaders whom the state security apparatus - which used to conspire against society as a whole - is continuing its plots in the hopes of aborting the revolution.

Some incidents of sectarian violence took place after the church-burning in Afteeh, on the eve of March 8; clashes between Christian citizens, who took to the streets to protest the burning of the church, and Muslim citizens occurred in downtown Cairo. According to the initial investigations by the military prosecutor, the clashes began when large numbers of Christians filed into a demonstration supporting those organizing the sit-in at the Broadcasting and Television building in protest over the desecration of the Sul church. The protesters blocked the road and were confronted by a number of Muslims. The clashes ended with the destruction of seven stores and the burning of a number of cars. These confrontations led to the death of 10 citizens (14 according to a Ministry of Health statement) and the injury of 110 (140 according to the Ministry of Health), with the identity of the dead and injured undetermined.

The sit-in at the Broadcasting and Television building lasted four days, in a clear imitation of the Tahreer Square demonstrations. Tahrir has apparently offered a model to whoever wishes to present a cause that he believes to be just. The sit-in was a miniature representation of the Tahrir protests, with committees whose main task was to search those joining the sit-in, and distribute food and blankets to the protesters; additionally, a number of make-shift radio broadcasts featuring the chants and speeches of the protesters. The familiar patriotic songs, however, were replaced with religious songs, and Egypt's flags were replaced with crosses. Some of the speeches said that the protest demands that the Copt becomes a first-class citizen.

The church did not appear to be controlling the scene of the protest, with a negligible number of clerics among the protesters, and the demonstrators stressed that they did not march behind a priest, but in order to demand that Copts become "first class citizens". Pacification attempts pursued by some of the church officials did not succeed in dissuading the crowd from continuing with the sit-in.

A conciliatory tone prevailed among Coptic Church Bishops, as was apparent in a statement by Anba Theodosius, Archbishop of Giza, who told the protestors at the Broadcasting and Television authority that the church was not completely demolished and that the rest of the demands were met, with the Helwan Governorate issuing a permit for the re-building of the Two Martyr-Saints Church in its original location per the directives of Marshall Husain Tantawi, General Commander of the Armed Forces and head of the Military Council.

Bishops from different parishes also denied rumors claiming that certain churches and convents were being attacked throughout the country. These rumors originated in the pleas of some Coptic women, featured on Christian Satellite channels, claiming attacks on a number of churches, such as the Mar Gerges (Saint George) Church in Sulu, the Mahraq Convent in Asyut, the Masara Church in Helwan, and Bani Bakheet Church in Bani Sweyf. In this regard, some Christian television channels played a notable role in fomenting Christian rage and inciting the public to come out and protest the Atfeeh attack, which explains the thousands of Coptic citizens joining the Maspiro protest in the days following the incident.

In an attempt at calming down the street, a group of the youth from the January 25 Revolution headed to the village of Sul with a number of civil society activists and politicians in order to calm and reassure the Coptic street.

The "Maspiro Against Sectarianism" movement, "the Association of the Journalists of the Coptic Dossier," and a number of priests and bishops issued a statement calling for the rebuilding of the church and the formation of a fact-finding mission to investigate the events and hold those responsible accountable, as well as provide assurances of the safety of the local Copts, guarantee their return to their homes, and issue compensations for the damages. The protesters staunchly rejected attempts to renegotiate the church's location and proposals of rebuilding it on a different plot in the same village, viewing such an act to be a harbinger for dissent and the sectarian agitation among the Homeland's children. "The Coalition of the Revolution's Youth" called for a million-man march on Friday (March 11) under the slogan "for the love of Egypt," rejecting sectarian sedition and the incidents of violence that recently took place in the country.

This time, however, a new variable entered the fray: the Egyptian people and Egyptian public opinion, both of which were marginalized in the past. When the public began voicing their opinions, it became clear that mainstream Egyptian society staunchly rejected sectarian strife, and refused to be drawn into it; in doing this, they were refusing to be silenced or marginalized by sectarian polarization.

1. On the other hand, the Military Council, which is charged with the tasks of the Egyptian presidency, issued a number of immediate directives: Proceed with the rebuilding of the Sul church in its original location
2. Permit village residents to return to their homes
3. Arrest those responsible for the demolishing and theft of the church, as well as those inciting them
4. Release the political prisoner Bishop Matawis

Despite the quick official response, including a meeting between the Prime Minister and a delegation of the television building protesters, the issuance, by Military Council, of a number of orders for immediate execution, , and the dispatching of a military force to protect the church as well as the commander of the Central Military Region to negotiate with the locals. However, the army appeared wholly incapable of dealing with the crisis, which was apparent in two distinct ways:

Firstly, the failure to disperse the March 8 sectarian clashes in Old Cairo, permitting the battle to go on for six hours without interfering to break it up, until the Coptic citizens were forced to seek shelter in the convent.

Secondly, the army also seemed incapable of convincing the Sul locals to allow the rebuilding of the church in its original location. A meeting with a Muslim-Christian delegation, headed by General Hassan al-Ruwaini, Commander of the Central Military District, also failed to persuade the locals to allow the execution of the Military Council order of immediately rebuilding the church. Eventually, the locals were persuaded to permit a limited rebuilding of the church following visits to the village by Muslim clerics, some of whom belonged to the Salafist current (Sheikh Muhammad Hassan). As for the Azhar and its clerics, Dr. Ahmad al-Tayyib, Azhar's high cleric, formed a high-level delegation to visit the village and meet with its Muslim and Christian inhabitants.[5]

Prior to the writing of this report, the Egyptian Mufti had announced that he would issue a clear fatwa categorically banning assaults against churches, as well as prohibiting the building of mosques in the place of churches, regardless of the circumstances.

Initial Conclusions

The assault on the church, the sectarian clashes that followed, and the inaction of the army for an entire day when citizens were being killed and injured were evidence of new trends and developments in Egypt that have refocused the attention on a variety of issues that must be handled:

1. The revolution brought out a novel behavior on the part of the revolutionary people and the Egyptian public opinion at large, where a consensus was quickly formed condemning sedition, accusing the former regime's men of creating it. 
2. There was also an unseen-before firmness on the part of the Military Council, which immediately condemned the assault and took strict measures, such as rebuilding the church.
3. The position of the Christian clerics appeared to be more moderate than in past experiences, in terms of the rhetoric of self-victimization. Muslim clerics, including al-Azhar, were firm and unambiguous in their condemnation of the attack in an unprecedented manner. Also, al-Azhar's fatwa prohibiting the building of a mosque in place of the church represents a noteworthy development.
4. On the other hand, we find elements of continuity with past, in terms of the broad feelings of victimization felt by wide sections of the Egyptian Coptic community.
5. An ancient rural behavior was re-asserted, morphing a trans-sectarian love affair into a sectarian issue that leads to sectarian violence. This behavior reveals a sectarian culture, proving that sectarianism permeates everyday social consciousness and is not a mere artificial creation, especially as evidenced during bursts of emotion related to blood or honor.

Based on these observations, we found it fit to seek an answer to the following question: is there a Coptic Question in Egypt? We intend to separate fact from fantasy and exaggeration when detailing this question. A question, which - we believe - can only be radically treated on the long term and under the aegis of a citizens' state and a common national identity.

Introduction

Before inhabiting Egypt, Arabs called the indigenous people of Egypt "the Copts," and called Egypt "the Land of the Copt". The term "Coptic" comes from an alteration of the Greek "Egyptos," the name given by Greeks to Egypt and the Nile Valley. However, the term "Coptic" and "Copts" began to be used in practice to designate "Christian" Egyptians during the Islamic period and after the conversion of the majority of the local population to Islam.[6]

More often than not, the term "important religious minorities in Egypt" is a reference to the Copts, despite the existence of other ethnic minorities in Egypt. Many Copts and non-Copts regard this vocabulary as an ideological expression reflecting a subjective stance rather than a formal distinction; consequently, they view this enshrining religious difference as demarcating the majority making the minority, in itself, an ideological assumption. Copts are indigenous Egyptians who cannot consent to being dubbed "a minority," or to being classified under a religious rubric, which would make their stature and importance proportional to their percentage (8-12 %, which equals 6-10 million Egyptians, a significant number, which statistically speaking equals the populations of entire nations by Arab standards). Official Egyptian sources say that the number of churches in Egypt stood at 2,524 churches, including 1,319 Coptic Orthodox churches.[7]

Had we been using the yardstick of citizenship and Egyptian belongings, Copts would have been part of the Egyptian and Arab majority. This is true because Copts were Arabized, along with the rest of the Egyptians who adopted Islam, and the two religions mixed and were part of the same culture throughout history, working together to preserve the identity of Egypt. Even more importantly, Copts perceive themselves as a genuine continuation of Egyptian history, an important component of their identity that affects political behavior.  Even if the concept of a "minority" were used to designate this group of indigenous citizens, this minority would remain incomparable to the immigrant minorities in European countries, for example.

The majority of the Copts in Egypt belong to the Coptic Orthodox Church, which presides over the Patriarchy of Africa and the Holy See of St. Mark, and based in Alexandria. The Coptic Church is endowed with religious and institutional independence from other clerical centers in the world, making it a veritable national church. Despite the fact that most Egyptian Copts belong to the local "Coptic Orthodox" denomination, we also find a small number of Egyptians who follow the Holy See in Rome, as well as a limited number of Protestant/Evangelical adherents.[8]

The Copts in Egypt's Modern History

Upon Muhammad Ali Pahsa's assumption of rule in Egypt at the beginning of the 19th century, he attempted to build a modern state on the European model. He sent scientific expeditions to Europe in order to gain inspiration from the French state modernization experience. It should also be pointed that his attempts were modest when compared to the Ottoman Tanzimat (Reforms) in terms of the depth of the vision and the scale of the elites and experts involved; nevertheless, Muhammad Ali's reforms were an important qualitative step in the building of the Egyptian state and have affected Arab societies at large.

These state-building efforts had important implications for the situation of the Copts in Egypt because the emergence of the state as a modern political entity was always concomitant with the emergence of "citizenship" as a political concept. The birth of Egyptian nationalism and the notion of Egyptian citizenship led to a qualitative change in the conditions of Egyptian Copts. In that sense, Muhammad Ali's era represented a shift in the state's attitude toward society, with a new dynamic that tends to view Copts as equal citizens in rights and obligations.

Muhammad Ali abolished most of the codes and rules discriminating against Copts and casting them as the "Other," most notably the attire laws that used to be imposed upon Christians in past eras.[9] He also abolished restrictions on religious practice and rituals, guaranteeing the Copts' free exercise of their religious rites. Furthermore, Muhammad Ali made it possible to request the building and renovation of churches, contributing public funds to that end.

It should also be noted that, on the level of social/political prestige and stature, Muhammad Ali Pasha was the first Muslim ruler to grant Coptic employees the rank of "Bey" and to choose advisors from among them.

During the era of the Khedive Saeed Pasha, the treatment of Copts took a further step in the practice of "citizenship," with the abolishment of the Jizyath Century. This had also opened the way for their drafting into the army, a very important step in shedding notions of Dhimmiya (second-class citizenry due to religious difference). For the first time, Copts joined the ranks of the judiciary and the army. As the then French revolutionary concept of the general draft stated, such measures have a close relation to "citizenship," especially since the French Revolution had called for the army to recruit from all classes of society; prior to this, professional military service was the monopoly of a specific class, and an inherited privilege from the days of aristocratic chivalry. In this vein of relaxed policy making regarding the Copts, Saeed Pasha I appointed an Egyptian Christian as governor of the Sudan. , which was a special tax levied on Christians since the Islamic conquest of Egypt in the middle of the 7

Furthermore, the conditions of the Copts under Khedive Ismaeel (1863-1878) witnessed noticeable improvements in terms of numeric representation and vertical mobility in public offices, with some Copts earning the title of "Pasha". The Khedive also funded Coptic religious education in the framework of mixed Muslim-Christian schools.[10]

The concept of Coptic Egyptian citizenry became rooted to the point that, in the first and second decades of the 20th Century, two Copts succeeded in becoming prime minister: Boutros Ghali Pasha (1908-1910), and Yusef Wehbeh Pasha (1919-1920). Since 1883, a custom was established to appoint one Copt in every cabinet, the number rose to two for the first time in 1924 when Saad Zaghlul formed his cabinet.

In conclusion, many researchers agree that the nature of the dominant economic system under the Khedives, relying on alliances with the bourgeois and feudal classes, opened the way for Coptic elites to interact positively with the state, leading some to dub the era of the Khedives as a Coptic Golden Age in Egypt's modern history. Such an assessment considers several variables, including the shift in the state's attitude towards Copts, from a minority within a "Millet System" to full "citizens" in the modern sense, as well as their increased participation - in scale and in quality - in the political arena, which culminated during the tenure of King Faruq, when Copts assumed ministerial positions 12 times in his cabinets; the highest number of any ruler in Egypt's modern history.

Here we must note an important paradox: if the "Golden Age" narrative carries any truth, then it only applies to the Coptic elite and its ascending Bourgeoisie, large landowners, and professionals because the lower social classes, which were left untouched by the advent of "citizenship" persisted in a life of social and economic marginalization in the countryside, regardless of whether they were Coptic or Muslim Fellahin.

After the July 1952 Revolution, the conditions of the Copts in Egypt underwent uneven changes; the Copts belonging to the lower classes of Egyptian society, and who were under the control of feudal landowners and the bourgeoisie, viewed the revolution and its reforms in a positive light as did the classes they belonged to. That was especially true when it came to nationalization and land reform laws.

On the other hand, the Coptic liberal economic elite - which had thrived under the Khedives - were negatively affected by these reforms. Their relation to the post-Revolution regime has changed over time due to the rise of two new important variables that went counter their interests, both ideologically and economically. These were a) the Socialist current born out of the Revolution and Gamal Abdel Nasser, and b) the Islamic tide represented by the Muslim Ikhwan group and their infiltration of state institutions in general and the army in particular.[11] This situation later receded, but the reversal of the Ikhwan's fortunes during their confrontation with the regime and their prosecution did not lead to ameliorating the conditions of Egyptian Copts, meaning that there is no causal link between these two variables.

In the first years of the July 1952 regime, a number of elements contributed to creating a wide front opposing the new regime. In addition, many sections of Egyptian society - especially among the Muslim and Christian middle class - were prudent and hesitant regarding the policies of the new revolutionary leadership.

However, there were additional causes for concern for the educated Coptic sector, which sometimes led them to oppose the new regime or to withdraw from political life entirely.[12] In fact, the Coptic middle class was not the only group pushed out of the political scene; the new political system - dominated by anti-democratic currents within the Free Officers' coalition - excluded all opponents or those with diverging views. However, this should not entail that Copts acted as a unified bloc, taking a collective decision to withdraw from political life.

During the period of the revolutionary regime, two main elements determined the Coptic stance:

1. The absence of any Egyptian Copt from the Revolutionary Council. This could be referred to the fact that the army, prior to the July Revolution, fell under the traditional influence of the King, with little influence of the Wafd party in the military institution. Therefore, discrimination between Copts and Muslims persisted in the Army especially in the higher ranks.

2.Gamal Abd al-Nasser's abolishment of the political parties law, allowing only the Ikhwan organization to pursue political activities under the pretext that it was not a formal political party, and because officers in the Revolutionary Council belonged to the Ikhwan. These arrangements left Egyptian Copts with the impression that the regime was allying itself with the Islamists.

After the Ikhwan and Nasser clashed towards the end of 1954, theories of a pact between the regime and the Islamists dissipated. Despite that, religion remained part of the regime's vocabulary, with Nasser using it instrumentally to one-up the Muslim Brothers. This was made clear in a string of decisions and directives including:

• Making religion an essential component of the educational curriculum, determining the success or failure of students.

• Founding Al Azhar University, which was restricted to Muslim students, and enhancing the position of al Azhar and the religious establishment through Law 103/1961, known as "al Azhar Law," and passed under the pretext of re-organizing the religious establishment. In effect, the law was merely an attempt to contain the clerical institution and abolish its independence, making al Azhar into a public establishment and al Azhar Sheikh a public functionary. Al Azhar was also exploited as a tool for expanding the clout of Nasser's Egypt in the Arab and Islamic World. However, al Azhar was able to exploit the regime's needs to increase its stature in various social and educational fields, as well as its position as a religious reference.

• The founding of Dar al Qur'an in 1964, with the purpose of spreading the Quranic heritage and launching the Qur'an radio broadcast.[13]

Conversely, the socialist reforms and equalizing opportunities between citizens constituted a positive dimension of Nasser's rule, for despite the policies mentioned above, Nasser's policy consistently presented itself as a national one benefitting all citizens, Muslims and Copts alike.

After the abolishment of the political parties' law on January 1953, it became difficult for any Copt to run for general elections and succeed in reaching the Parliament. As a result, only a single Copt - Fayiq Fareed - was elected to the 1957 National Assembly, representing the Shubra district (North of Cairo). In order to remedy this situation, Gamal Abd al-Nasser improvised a novel constitutional principle, "appointment", which was an amendment of the temporary constitution in 1956 permitting the President to appoint ten members in the Council of Representatives.[14] This article was used to introduce Coptic representatives to the parliament until Mubarak's era.

This method was oft-criticized as having counter-effects enshrining the exclusion of Copts from National Assembly elections, casting their presence in the Parliament as a "gift," which led to the deepening of the segregation of Copts and their differential treatment compared to the rest of the Egyptian people.

The state's approach of adopting devout religious stances and encouraging a specific form of Islamic religiosity as a counterbalance to political Islam has produced a side-effect, pushing Copts to sense that they are foreigners in this ongoing game, while in fact they are not guests, but authentic Egyptians. In our opinion, this mounting emotional state - not merely discrimination in numbers - was the major factor behind the crystallization of conflicting identities, and behind the politicization of these identities.

The beginnings of the Sadat era were marked by a heated effort to dismantle the Nasserist legacy in the state, society, and media, even if that required an alliance with the Islamic groups and the Ikhwan. Sadat also took the initiative of releasing Islamist prisoners held in state penitentiaries. Ghali Shukri  (1935-1998, an Egyptian writer, journalist and one of the most important critics of the 1960s Arab literary movement; his importance was often attributed to his academic background wrote on the effect of these actions in terms of the relationship with the Copts, arguing that "religious extremism and its direct repercussions on Copts was not apparent until the Sadat era, when the jailed Islamists were released with hearts filled with an anger that could not be unleashed in the face of the state that had just released them from captivity, so some of that anger was directed towards Christians who were never the ones to imprison and assault them."[15][16] Anti-Coptic opinions and statements were attributed to Sadat and spread in Egyptian circles, some of which originated in the Nasser era - such as his boast in Jeddah, upon being appointed General Secretary of the Islamic Council in 1965, that "he shall convert Egyptian Copts to Islam within ten years, or else they will be reduced to shoe-shiners and beggars".

Sadat's rule was not a complete break with Nasser's era, but - for certain reasons - it was stripped even from the thin veil of nationalist ideology that was inclusive towards Copts as Arabs and Egyptians. In his early days, Sadat sought to rid himself of the influence of the Nasserist and Leftist currents by propping up and exploiting an Islamic "fundamentalist" current. This has led to an unprecedented spread of the Islamic discourse,[17]the main source of legislation" in 1980. The gulf between Copts and the state increased, especially after "the Ten Conditions" were imposed on the building and renovation of churches. This went along a process of "Othering" experienced by the Copts in the 1970s, when the Sadat-allied religious current attempted to reanimate doctrinal debates about the Copts' legal position vis-à-vis the Egyptian state and society along the lines of the Ahl al-Dhimma concept, which was resuscitated after being shelved for a very long period. which affected Egypt's Copts adversely. This fact was highlighted when the phrase "Islam is the religion of the state, and Sharia is a main source of legislation" was added to the second article of the constitution in 1971, which was later amended to "Sharia is

These events also affected the political participation of Egyptian Coptic citizens; they were excluded from the ruling party's electoral lists due to the assumption that they were incapable of winning seats; their social issues and concerns were also excluded from the agendas of other political parties.[18] The notion that Copts cannot win elections is itself an ideological position, which has, in turn, created a reality. The theory assumes a pattern of sectarian voting among Egyptian citizens; political parties adopted this view, and then acted upon it by excluding Copts from their electoral lists, turning the notion of the Copts' electoral vulnerability into a self-fulfilling prophecy.

In the age of Mubarak, the Egyptian Copts' assessment of their situation split into two major strands:

• The first group positively assessed Mubarak's regime in its dealings with Copts, when comparing his tenure to that of his predecessor (Sadat). This position supports its argument with the laws of his time, such as the "relative" flexibility in the legal procedure for building churches, the making of Christian Christmas into an official state holiday, the leadership's intervention to resolve some of the Copts' issues, and other practices.

• The second camp argues that the Egyptian street has become more extremist and that the government's attempts to fight the fundamentalist current, or cajole it, led to its sidelining of Coptic issues and concerns; except in some matters relating to religious properties and some social issues as well.

A close examination of the conditions of Coptic citizens under Mubarak reveals a slight opening on the part of the state, without breaking away from the exclusivist policies of the Sadat era. Coptic political participation remained constrained to a number of appointed MPs and ministers with second-rate portfolios. As an example, Coptic representation in the last cabinet before the recent Egyptian Revolution consisted of two ministers, Yusuf Boutros Ghali in the Ministry of Finance and Maged George in the Ministry of the Environment; after the Shafiq cabinet was formed - following Mubarak's ousting - only the Minister of Environment maintained his post.

The National Party often withdraws the candidacy of Copts from electoral district, claiming their inability to win the vote as we saw in the last elections when candidates were withdrawn after they were placed on National Party lists for the Advisory Council elections. The official regime limits Coptic citizens to a symbolic participation in the political system, most evident by the President's appointment of Coptic representatives in the People's Assembly. In the 2010 elections, prior to the Alexandria church bombing, former President Mubarak chose to appoint only seven Coptic MPs out of ten that he is constitutionally allowed to select.

The following figures show the variation in the number of Coptic MPs in Egypt's modern history:[19]

Coptic Egyptian MPs Prior to the July 1952 Revolution

Coptic Egyptian MPs after the July 1952 Revolution

Under Gamal Abd al-Nasser

Under Anwar al-Sadat

Under Hosni Mubarak

Socio-Economic Conditions

The Economic Conditions

The presence of Egyptian Copts is not limited to a specific profession or a cluster of professions; Egyptian Copts practice all professions and are active in all economic fields as their Muslim counterparts. Just like Muslims, Copts are represented in all social strata: Copts include captains of commerce and large contractors, and form a part of the middle classes and landlords in the cities and farmers in the countryside. A significant number of Copts is concentrated in private and skilled professions, such as medicine, engineering, law, and accounting; some of them occupy positions in the public sector, as well as the literary, artistic, and media domains. Counter to their presence in the small bourgeoisie, Copts are also heavily present among farmers and workers.[20] By and large, there is no significant variation between the class distribution of Copts and other Egyptians; Copts are fully integrated in all the social classes and sectors of Egypt.

In 2007, in an official response to a report by Amnesty International that claimed Egyptian Copts suffer from discrimination and persecution on several levels, the Egyptian government announced that Egyptian Copts possess a third of the national wealth while only representing 10% of the population. The then Minister of Labor and Immigration, Aisha Abd al-Hadi, said that the largest Egyptian companies are owned by Copts, and that they fill a hefty percentage in highly-skilled professions, such as medicine and pharmacy, and that their proportion in professional syndicates hovers around 25% of the total membership.[21]

On the other hand, unofficial economic reports state that 75% of the means of transportation, 44% of the industry, 51% of the banks, and 34% of agricultural land are owned by Copts, which makes them proprietors of a quarter of the national wealth. Forbes magazine includes three Egyptian Copts in its list of the world's wealthiest people, next to ten other individuals in the Arab region.[22]  It should be pointed out here that doubts were voiced regarding the veracity and accuracy of these figures; additionally, such a "division" of the national wealth (i.e., determining the share in property of certain population groups) runs counter to the definition of "national wealth," as well as to any scientific conception of economy in general. Furthermore, such concepts are antagonistic to the notions of nationhood and citizenship.

Nevertheless, we can gleam from such studies that a disproportionality exists between the economic dynamism of Egyptian Copts and their political and legal stature; such a fact tends not to console the productive and economically successful citizen; rather, it increases his frustration instead, for he would expect - with additional vigor - a legal and political treatment that makes him equal to other citizens.

In this regard, it remains poignantly true that certain important state offices are still closed to Egyptian citizens with a Coptic background, and that their representation in the judiciary, the official media, diplomatic missions, the army, and the police does not surpass 2% of the total. For instance, there are 17 public universities in Egypt, each having one director and three or four vice-directors with a total of 71 positions; not a single Copt occupies one of these seats. In addition, there are 274 Deans in Egyptian faculties, none of which includes a single Copt.[23]

Other Sources of Discontent

In education the Coptic social and political voices claim many grievances with the Egyptian educational system, including:

• Educational curriculums neglect a long period of Coptic history beginning with Christianity's entry to Egypt until the rise of Arab and Islamic presence in the country

• Neglect of the Christian religion, which is the faith of a large number of Egyptians, in school curriculums. In a clear contrast, Qur'anic texts and Hadiths of the Prophet are included in Arabic literature classes, while terms and texts relating to the Bible are completely cast out of these courses. Religious instruction is taught in Egyptian schools, with Christian students taught Christianity while Muslims study Islam; Christians are not required to attend Muslim religious instruction. Egyptian Christians did not protest the inclusion of religion in education through specialized classes, but opposed the inclusion of Quran passages in Arabic classes that all students - including Christians, naturally - must study, and in some cases, memorize.
  
  However, the argument lamenting the absence of Coptic religious texts in general instruction ignores the fact that the Qur'an is taught in such instances as a literary text, not a religious one. Such arguments were only made recently, and by forces not belonging to the Coptic mainstream, as a result of an environment rife with sectarian strains. As for the argument critiquing the absence of Christian history from the school history books, and the absence of Christianity's role in the formation of the Egyptian character and Egypt's national identity, such criticisms are proven to have obvious merits.

• The discrimination against Christians serving in the military becomes evident as those who memorize the Qur'an receive a shortened military service, serving only a single year, for those without educational diplomas, while non-Muslim conscripts have no access to such favors even if they memorized their entire Holy Book.[24]

• Copts also bemoan the fact that the salute to the flag was allegedly changed into an Islamic oath, and that religious songs are now chanted instead of patriotic ones. These claims, however, are not accurate. The flag salute is still performed in schools, some changes were made during the period of religious fervor and only in certain schools and due to individual initiatives, where students were made to say "God is great and long live Egypt," instead of "long live the Egyptian Arab Republic," which was the daily chant of school children uttered thrice during the morning call until the mid-1990s.

The Egyptian government claims that it is in the process of altering Egyptian school curricula in reaction to the aforementioned Coptic concerns; on April 18, 2010, a ministerial proposal was made commissioning an educational book embracing the values of the three religions: Islam, Christianity, and Judaism for the text to be taught in public schools.[25] Perusing this proposed text shows clearly that this reform was an attempt to please the United States government, where a Coptic lobby is active in the halls of power rather than a genuine attempt at admitting the religious diversity within the national community and its shared culture. On January 27, 2010, the Minister of Education, Ahmad Zaki, stated that the Ministry and Dar al-Ifta (the official Muslim religious authority in Egypt) will introduce changes to the religious education curricula throughout the K-12 grades, starting in 2011/2012.[26]

The Building and Renovation of Churches

Egyptian Copts lament the government's restrictions on the building and repairing of Christian churches; an 1856 Ottoman law is still in effect mandating that non-Muslims must receive the permission of the head of the state before being allowed to build a temple.[27]

As we said earlier, legal restrictions were eased under Mubarak; in 1999, the president proposed a new law decreeing that the renovation of all houses of worship, whether mosque or church, was the sole prerogative of the engineering administration in the regional capitals and the main cities. However, after Coptic protestations and pleas, an Egyptian court issued a ruling that established a new legal framework for the renovation of churches in Egypt (Case No3714 - 2010/penal), stating that the renovation of churches does not require the prior approval of any official body, including state security and the local administration.[28] However, this ruling never went into effect because of the refusal of security agencies. The double standards in the regulations and restrictions between mosques and churches remain in effect.

Studies claiming discrimination against Egyptian Copts abound, with most noting the failure of the state in dealing with the Coptic question and protecting its citizens especially when it became clear that the main concern of the government in Mubarak's era was its own protection and that of its interests. One of these studies errs by conflating Mubarak's era with that of Sadat, claiming that Mubarak's regime attempted to cajole the evermore powerful Islamist groups, while consenting to discrimination against Copts. No clear evidence exists of Mubarak's regime pandering to the Islamists.[29]

Copts and Citizenship

The Egyptian novelist Ala al-Aswani says that the problem of discrimination against Copts began with Sadat when he pronounced himself to be "a Muslim President of a Muslim nation," and that the sectarian strain in Egypt is the result of the absence of an inclusive national project, as well as the spread of the austere Salafist thought, which was introduced into Egypt from abroad, and other factors, such as poverty, frustration, and rising unemployment, has increased the level of hatred and aggressiveness in society. Additionally, al-Aswani continues, claiming that "the inconsistency of the state policy in the sectarian domain" is due to the regime being afraid of any external pressure, its over-reliance on the repressive state apparatus, and the general prosecutor's office being under the influence of the justice minister who is appointed and directed by Mubarak. All of these issues have led to the vacillation of the state policy regarding Copts; in some cases, the law is breached to assuage Copts, as in the Wafa Qustantin affair, in which the state neglected to protect her and handed her over to the church; in other cases the regime fails to protect Copts, as in the bombing of the Alexandria church. This inconsistency has led people to lose faith in the law and to take the law into their own hands, which has caused horrendous crimes.[30]

Al-Aswani continues his discussion by noting that, aside from the existence of a Coptic question, there are several accompanying symptoms that must be explicated. These include general problems in the country that are suffered by all, Muslims and Copts equally, such as the lack of education, the inequality in opportunities, injustice, and corruption. Therefore, al-Aswani believes the struggle of the Copts must be part and parcel of the struggle of all citizens in Egypt, stating that "the Copts in the diaspora have held many conferences in which they never called for substantive democracy, an end to falsified elections, the abolishment of the Emergency Law, or the release of prisoners ... all of their demands were exclusively focused on achieving privileges for the Copts!"[31]

A controversy was stirred over statements by Enba Pishoy, Secretary of the Holy Council of the Egyptian Orthodox Church, exclaiming that "Copts are the indigenous people of Egypt, and Muslims are guests"; a heated exchange developed involving the official and popular realms in Egypt. Such positions had been expressed by representatives of the Coptic Orthodox Church in the past, as was the case of a famous lecture by Enba Thomas in the United States. This political/nationalist narrative began to spread deeper in Coptic circles after it was finally put out in the open.

Such statements have a deep significance in terms of explicating the absence of a notion of citizenship, the same posture was practiced by some Muslim forces towards Copts, and it now seems that such trends are spreading in Coptic clerical milieus as well. These statements express a vision with a political dimension that attempts to imagine a "history" for an Egyptian "present" that is separate from Arabism and Islam, and also a "present" for Egyptian Copts that is separate from that of their Muslim brethren. Such a vision prepares the ground for a pure "Egyptianism" with all links to the Arab and Muslim identities severed. Such an isolationist perspective dubs Egyptian Muslims as non-Egyptian with Islam viewed as an "intruder" on Egypt (i.e., it has not been in Egypt since the dawn of history just as Christianity has not always been present in Egypt, but migrated into the country and was subsequently adopted by many Egyptians).

Parting from this, treating Islam as a phenomena that is originally foreign to Egypt may be historically correct to an extent, but that also applies to Christianity's entry into Egypt; both Christians and Muslims are Egyptian, and they are all Arabs who speak Arabic, conceive their ideas in Arabic, and dream in Arabic.

Herein, we find an important instance of an isolationist Coptic position that is self-contradictory. It demands equality while at the same time undermining equality's civic infrastructure, the necessity of acknowledging the shared civilizational and national framework that binds all Egyptians together. From this perspective, we note that Coptic lobbies in the United States did not seek an equal Egyptian citizenship under the aegis of a democratic system, nor did they struggle against despotism and all the forms of injustice that touched both Muslims and Christians. In fact, some clerical and Coptic figures had no objections to making deals favoring the "bequeathing of rule" that was being promoted in favor of Gamal Mubarak or others in exchange for what they believed to be increased rights for Coptic citizens. Such behavior ignored the inherent contradiction between receiving civic rights as political "grants," and the very notion of citizenship; thus, this camp deepened the gulf between its demands and the national struggle for democracy and equal citizenship.

In this regard, the case of the Coptic activist in the United States, Michael Munir, stands out. Munir had orchestrated a violent campaign of criticism against Hosni Mubarak's regime and organized protest rallies for the expatriate Coptic community in the American capital, but upon striking a deal with the regime he returned to Egypt and formed a civil rights organization focusing on Coptic issues: "Yadan bi Yadd" (Hand in Hand). When Mubarak visited Washington, DC in August 2008, Munir refused to participate in anti-regime demonstrations organized by the Coptic community.

However, despite all of these criticisms, the state and the regime bear the main responsibility for the situation of Egypt's Copts. To comprehend the full extent of this process, we must understand the regime's failure to build full-fledged equal citizenship within the frame of Arab identity and the diverse expanse of the Islamic civilization; we must also assess the regime's failure to both establish essential notions of justice and equality towards the law, and find formulas that permit national integration by guaranteeing the equality in rights and obligations of all citizens without racial or religious discrimination.

Egyptian constitutions and basic texts of law never mentioned the notion of "Islam is the state religion" until the 1923 constitution, which included the term in its 149th article and has been included in constitutional amendments thereafter. The phrase was in the 138th article of the 1930 constitution, and the third article of the 1956 constitution, but was cast aside in the 1958 temporary constitution, and in the constitutional amendments of September 1962; the same text was reinstituted in the 5th article of the 1964 constitution. The 1971 constitution took a further step in linking law and religion, for Anwar al-Sadat was seeking a new source of legitimacy in setting his regime apart from the revolutionary regime of 1952; accordingly this passage was modified in the 1980 amendments to state that the Muslim Sharia is "the main source of legislation," as opposed to "a main source of legislation" in the 1971 constitution. Sadat followed these amendments by stating that he is "a Muslim President of a Muslim nation," which gave Copts the impression that they had become second class citizens.[32]

Among the reverberations of the Alexandria bombing in early 2011 was a hail of criticisms inside and outside Egypt directed at the Egyptian state; such views contended that the state is the main culprit to be held accountable for these incidents and that the state's weakness and failures on civic and legal levels have led to the conditions of sectarian tensions and security breaches. This position stems from a widely-held belief that the "tangible" state of tension among the Egyptian people is a generalized symptom that is not exclusive to Muslim-Coptic relations. The government's incapacity to manage the country has created a number of negative reactions, including on social and religious levels, making sectarian polarization nothing but a symptom of this general state of incompetence.

We cannot claim that the escalation of sectarian clashes is solely due to the role of the state, the state's negative role lies in what it fails to do rather than what it does, chiefly, its inability to establish notions of citizenship and civic belongings. These incapacities are what turned the state into an idle witness as its citizens reconstructed their collective identities in manners that often did not overlap with the national identity, and may have run in opposition to the concept of citizenship. This trend was evident in the behavior of the Coptic Church in Egypt, as well as the Salafi current, or even the Ikhwan organization, which never made a clear explication of its position on the matter of citizenship or regarding the proposition that all are equal in their homeland regardless of differences in doctrine and creed. On this last point, we have reason to believe that the possibility is open - following the revolution - for the Ikhwan to develop their political theory that was published in the "Bayan lil Nas" (A Statement to the People) series in the 1990s into a veritable civic thought, whether the standard of citizenship pertained to women, non-Muslims, seculars, or others. Following the recent revolution, the Ikhwan's historic condition for participating in the rule of Egypt lies in their conformity to an idea of equal civic, political, and social citizenship that is attempting to impose itself in the post-revolutionary phase.

Arab countries continue to debate whether the principles of the Islamic Sharia are - in practice - compatible with the those of modern citizenship. A lot has been penned in this regard, with hundreds of books and conferences on the subject, which means that we cannot make any novel contribution to this debate but we shall point to an essay by Tariq al-Bishri (an Egyptian judge and writer, appointed after the revolution as head of the commission reviewing the constitution)  in which he argues that the Islamic doctrine possesses the necessary tools to be flexible and to conform with the lived reality, and that the theorists of the Islamic current are willing and determined to pursue this path.[33]

In his book, al-Bishri cites doctrinal initiatives by Muslim scholars that confirm their commitment to proper relations between Muslims and non-Muslims and equality of all towards the law, but even in these instances reservations persisted regarding the ascension of non-Muslims to high and sensitive positions of authority, which reveals a deficient notion of citizenship, the cornerstone of the relationship between the individual and the state. Another persistent problem pertains to the view of non-Muslims as an "Other" in the Muslim-majority state, as if it were an Islamic state, and the principles of Muslim-Christian relations in such a context are, in the best of cases, based on the notion "tolerance" (and on the charitable teachings of Islam) rather than equal rights.

A thorny issue lies in the fact that the abstention to codify the custom of not allowing non-Muslims to assume top public posts and the criticisms directed at this practice - usually made in a manner so as to assuage the fears of Islamists - are all based on arguments that do not stem from the principle of equality. Some critics argue that no codification is necessary since the Muslim majority in the country is unlikely to vote for a non-Muslim as President, which is al-Bishri's view. Such a perspective also reveals a lack of understanding for democracy and proper citizenship, and inculcates popular culture with sectarian notions while the purpose is supposed to be the prevention of a sectarian code.

If we were to examine the more recent positions of Islamic thinkers, we would discover that these issues have been surpassed in the field of Islamic theory. For instance, Islamic thinker and activist Rashid al-Ghannushi discussed the presidency of non-Muslims, stating, "with the assumption that a Coptic character were to garner broad popular appeal and wide national support, to the point of running and succeeding in being elected for this position through honest elections, this would be neither a national calamity nor a religious sin ... Egypt has known Coptic leaders with impeccable nationalist credentials and popular appeal such as Makram Ubaid, and some of those [sic] were advisors and confidantes of Hassan al-Banna. Syria has also had a Christian Prime Minister in the person of Faris al-Khury, whose tenure was successful and his relationship with Islam and Islamists excellent, he did not ruin the country, but left good memories behind him, and I wish that all the Muslim coup-seekers who came after him had followed by his example."[34]As long as Tunisian Ghannushi is permitted to make such claims, the same applies to the thought of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt, especially in light of the emerging civic and national fervor following the recent revolutionary change; these factors require the Ikhwan to construct a solid national and civic proposition founded upon a clear theory to which everyone must commit.

The materialization of a historical change in Egypt after the revolution represents a historic opportunity for the Muslim Brotherhood and others to revise and theorize and clarify their principles in these civic matters, with the absence of the former dictatorial authority that actively urged all sides into internal conflicts and civic strife. The Brotherhood leader Abd al-Munim Abu al-Futuh claims that the Ikhwan after the Revolution differ from the Ikhwan[35] There is a reigning belief nowadays that a major role for the Brotherhood will crystallize with civic democratic transition in Egypt; following the revolution, the media reported on statements by Western leaders - such as Obama and Sarkozy - predicting a potential role for the Brotherhood on the political scene.[36] before it; they now work in public with transparency and clarity after the former regime was dethroned. He comments: "Restrictions and bans are now over, the group must reconstitute itself in a legal and transparent manner, performing its religious, financial, and administrative work in all transparency and straight-forwardness".

The political transformations and re-positionings taking place after the revolution also provide the Copts with a chance to revise their position on the Ikhwan and the reservations set by the Church towards active political participation; those concerns could be wholly sidestepped in a suitable democratic framework. For instance, the Islamists were repressed and prosecuted under Nasser, but Copts were still deprived of effective political participation; as al-Bishri argues, "repressing the religious current does not provide security to the non-Muslim minority; security emanates from the political regime, i.e. democracy and the establishment of notions of equality and participation."[37]

Equality was lost along with democracy, and the state apparatus in Egypt was exclusively focused on guaranteeing the interests of its economic and political elite, and on dependence on the interests of foreign powers; all of these issues interacted with the question of Tawreeth (political bequeathing). This state of affair contradicted the responsibility of the state to achieve full citizenship for its subjects because it hampered attempts for real reform on the national level. This has engendered broad popular anger, and from all currents, pointing at the Egyptian government apparatus.

The state's failure was not limited to the political and social spheres; in fact, we saw that the cultural scene, regulated and sponsored by the regime was closer to a scene of corruption - with all the possible meanings of the term.

As we have shown above, Egyptian non-sectarian circles (include democratic, leftist, nationalist and Islamist powers) share this critical position  that is not content to attack those responsible for sectarian incitement against Copts, nor does it absolve the Church from its responsibility; they criticize the growing political influence of the church and its policy that isolated Egyptian Copts from public affairs. Some authors who argue for the equality of Copts have noted that - in the last years - there has been a coupling between the interests of the state and that of the regime's elite, which led to "a perplexing state of confusion ... Egyptian Christians may be its first victim."[38]

A critical stance has equally been developed regarding the provocations of extremists, such as the "diaspora Copts," who speak of secession, and some clerics, such as the extremist Enbe Pishoy who described Muslims as guests in Egypt as we mentioned earlier.            

The Legal System and Personal Status Laws

The Legal Standing of Copts

Since 1516, Christian Arabs have been subjects of the Ottoman Empire, which treated them in accordance with the millet system that was inspired by the codes of the Sharia. Subjects of the Empire were divided into two groups, Muslims and non-Muslims, with the second category - especially Christians - viewed as Ahl al-Dhimma (literally, "people of the contract", or "the people under protection") whom the sultan pledged to not only protect, but also preserve their religious and non-religious freedoms, as well as their property, and exempt them from military service in exchange for paying a special levy, the Jizya.[39] In the traditional millet system, religious communities were granted a relative autonomy in managing their internal affairs, but in the age of the modern central state, the state of citizenship, citizens were expected to be equal in the eyes of the law and in the socio-political domain, and national identities were expected to trump religious and sectarian ones.

Despite the fact that the millet system contained, in some cases, relative restrictions on the activities of non-Muslim religious communities, it has also preserved these groups by acknowledging their collective rights. At the same time, the traditional millet system largely maintained the existing social hierarchy.

Beginning in the second half of the 19th century, the millet system and its ramifications were gradually discarded, but the maturing of an alternative, modern, system based on the concept of citizenship was hampered by a host of reasons. Concurrently, the ideology of citizenship and civic rights was spreading widely due to the process of Ottoman modernization. Despite these imperfections, a perpetual guarantee remained in the form of shared Egyptian identity and the social intermingling of Copts and Muslims in a single social fabric, whether in the cities or in the countryside.

In every phase of crisis in the rapport between Muslims and Copts, and in periods when the relationship between the two religions was cast as one between two communities rather than between citizens, the church tightened its hold over the community, both as its religious sanctuary and as its representative with the state and the other communities. Such a situation has invariably led to a regression in Coptic political participation, and sometimes gave the impression that Coptic identity trumps the Egyptian national identity. In other words, it was in the church's interest to make the Copts - anew - into a "millet," a sectarian community that is largely autonomous and led by the church, while at the same time, the same church was pressing the state to implement the rights of modern citizenship. Thus, the church was a knowing or unknowing accomplice, along with certain wings in the state and some Islamist currents, in preventing the culture and practice of full Egyptian citizenship.

The events of the popular Egyptian Revolution and the impressive scene of Egyptians of all creeds pinning their hopes for social change on the revolution and regime-change have clearly shown the artificiality of sectarian polarization.

Personal Status Laws for the Copts

The general principle of the Egyptian Personal Status Law is that the personal affairs of Egyptians are governed by their respective spiritual codes. Therefore, Egyptian personal status codes vary according to religion and sect; matters of marriage, divorce, and inheritance for Muslims are regulated according to Islamic law, while Christians submit to the respective codes of their various denominations and sects.[40]

The sixth article of the law abolishing religious courts and Millet councils (462/1955 - still in effect today) states that the Islamic Sharia would apply to non-Muslims in personal status litigations if a husband and a wife were of different religions. Naturally, Copts view this text as a form of discrimination between Muslims and non-Muslims, having permitted the application of Islamic laws on non-Muslims. This has many consequences; for instance, the Sharia laws - as applied in Egypt - would force non-Muslim males to convert to Islam in order to marry Muslim women, but non-Muslim women have no obligation to change religion when marrying Muslims. The same rules also forbid Muslim women from marrying Christian men. 

According to Sharia law, as interpreted by the Egyptian government, if the wife in a non-Muslim couple decides to convert to Islam, her marriage with her non-Muslim husband is to be automatically dissolved. In such cases, local security agencies often query the non-Muslim husband on whether he is willing to convert to Islam; if he chooses not to, divorce procedures are put in place and the children are placed under the custody of the mother.

In inheritance laws, Christian widows of Muslim men have no automatic right to inheritance, even though they could be given a proportion of the estate through a documented will. According to the Sharia, those converting out of Islam lose all claims to inheritance, but because the government provides no legal recourse for Muslims converting to Christianity to change their personal status in order to reflect their new religion, this concept may go unmentioned in civil documents.[41] 

It is worthy to note that Egypt still lacks officially codified personal status regulations for non-Muslims; these matters are still left to the discretion and decisions of the church leaders. This peculiar situation, with multiple personal status codes among non-Muslims, and to a certain extent among Muslims themselves, creates unending debacles in the personal lives of citizens. For instance, an Egyptian court issued a ruling to separate a renowned thinker (the late scholar Nasr Hamid Abu Zeid) from his wife, though they were both Muslim, because of an inquisition Hisba) demand based on a legal opinion by the 8th century Islamic scholar Abu Hanifa.

It is also clear that Christian couples suffer from the intransigence of the church laws, which prevent divorce and refuse to enact it even in cases where a marriage has become devoid of any relationship, or where a marriage is impossible to sustain.[42]

The demand to issue a religion-based special law for Coptic personal status is one of the major controversies between the state and the church, given the church's draconian rules in personal status matters, which are decried and opposed by many in the Coptic community itself.

Echoes of the Alexandria Bombing (January 2011)

Late on New Year's Eve, 2011, a Coptic church, the Two Martyr-Saints church, in Alexandria was struck by a deadly bombing that left over 20 people dead. In his article, "Questioning Calamity," Fahmy al-Hwaidy dubbed the incident "a calamity" and an exceptional event in Egypt, arguing that it will leave deeper traces than previous bloody incidents and clashes because it has the potential to inflame the entire homeland.[43]

Following the bombing, the fiercest criticisms against the state came from Coptic ranks. Anger had been building up among the Copts of Egypt, increasing over the years, reaching its apex with the terrorist crime in Alexandria. This was evident in the furious Coptic protests pointing their ire at the state in the days following the attack. In this mood of protest, the Coptic Church attorney held a press conference demanding that the Egyptian Government Issue Coptic personal status laws and allows the building of houses of worship. The situation in Egypt was already steaming due to the general state of discontent on all levels, but it was noteworthy that the bombing made this state of anger explode in the face of the government, not the "other sect"; protests were directed at the regime that was capable - if it so wished - of enacting reforms and an equal civic policy that would have benefitted everyone. It was also noted that there was a broad sympathy throughout Egyptian society with the anger of the Copts. This may have been an ironic turn of history; an act that was intended to create sectarian strife caused Muslims to empathize with the Copts and increased the level of opposition to the regime from all sides, Muslim and Coptic.

Now, we can retrospectively understand the behavior of society and its wrath against the prevailing conditions and the government as a preamble to the coming revolutionary moment.

During the revolution, it was revealed that there is a strong basis to suspect that the bombing - initially blamed by the regime on Palestinian fundamentalists from Gaza - was in fact the work of the Ministry of the Interior and the state security, which intended to divert attention from the recent fixing of elections by fomenting a sectarian crisis that the regime could use to direct accusations against its political opponents. When Egyptian lawyer Mamduh Ramzi presented a notice to the general prosecutor accusing Habeeb al-Adly - former interior minister - of responsibility in the Alexandria bombing,[44] Egypt seemed to be living in a new era compared to the ambiance following the bombing when nobody dared to openly contemplate such possibilities.

If these accusations, which are supported by confessions and documents, turn out to be true, the Egyptian regime would have devised a horrific plot against its society using terrorist bombings against civilians in order to fragment the national community along sectarian lines.

At the time, the New York Times described the attack as the worst "against the Christian minority in Egypt".[45] Western media focused on what they termed the threat of Islamic extremism. The Washington Post discussed the potentiality that al-Qaida was involved, which would be a grave development for Egypt. The LA Times quoted statements claiming that the rise of the religious tide in Egypt is creating extremist groups that are capable of such actions.[46]

The Alexandria bombing revived a popular Western discourse on the existential threats faced by the Christians of the Orient; the Christian Science Monitor said in its January 4, 2011 editorial that Middle Eastern Christians are facing increasing threats, while the New York Times linked acts of violence directed against Christians in various unrelated scenes in Asia and Africa, critiquing the US government for its lack of resolve in the face of the Islamic threat that is looming over Christians, as in the cases of Nigeria, Iraq, Pakistan, and Egypt. The paper insisted that Obama's "idealistic" worldview prevented him from seeing the "spread of terrorism" in the world.[47]

In an attempt at damage control, the Egyptian government pointed the accusation at foreign actors targeting Egypt's security, according to a statement by then President Hosni Mubarak. Minister of Interior, Habeeb al-Adly, claimed that the "Palestinian Army of Islam" organization stood behind the bombing, in a televised statement on the official Egyptian channel on January 23, 2011. The Egyptian Ministry of Interior affirmed that the foreign group used a young Egyptian man to carry out the operation; one of the leaders of the Army of Islam, Muhammad al-Maqdisi, denied any involvement of his group in the attack. It made little sense for the Army of Islam to plan such an attack, for that would expose Gaza to further siege and assaults, and may even constitute an excuse for a new Israeli war on Gaza, under the pretext of combating extremist groups.

In his turn, Pope Shnoda III beseeched the Egyptian government to deal with what he termed "the suffering of Egyptian Christians" and to curb the rise of sectarian strife in Egypt.[48] Several news agencies reported that Pope Shnoda's adviser and head of the Egyptian Center for Human Rights, Najeeb Jibraeel, accused the major Muslim preachers and scholars of being responsible for this sectarian outburst, claiming that they incite hatred with rumors of arms - brought from Israel - allegedly being stored in Christian churches. Jibraeel mentioned an exceptionally heated al-Jazeera television interview with Islamic thinker and author Muhammad Saleem al-Awwa. The interview, conducted by the journalist Ahmad Mansur, focused on accusations made against Egyptian Copts such as proselytizing among Muslims and storing arms in churches.[49]

Following this episode, outrage erupted in Coptic circles against what they viewed as naked incitement being practiced by the guest and the reporter against Copts. Al-Awwa had also presented a program on al-Jazeera on the Islamic Conquest of Egypt, which many observers took to be another episode in the ongoing sectarian polarization in Egypt. The television program, many argued, was a direct answer to Pope Pishoy's anti-Muslim statements to the effect that Egypt belongs to the Copts and that Muslims are its guests.

al-Awwa defended himself against accusations hurled following al-Jazeera's decision - at that sensitive time - by airing a series on the Islamic Conquest of Egypt. The motives of the program and its presenter were questioned, especially given the controversial content of the series and its inclusion of obvious parallels to the current state of sectarian polarization. The program was accused of being a tool for the incitement of hatred and sectarian agitation in Egypt.

During a lecture in the Egyptian Society for Culture and Science in the Rabia al-Adawiya Mosque in Cairo, al-Awwa responded by saying that he deplores the criminal bombing, and that the accusations against him are "silly talk and baseless". The Alexandria bombing was also denounced by al Azhar Mufti Ahmad al-Tayyib, Dr. Muhammad Badee General Guide of the Muslim Brotherhood, and other Muslim scholars.

The Muslim Brotherhood announced, in a statement released shortly after the bombing, its condemnation of the incident, affirming that the IkhwanIkhwan from an interview with Dr. Rashad Bayyumi, Deputy General Guide of the organization, which was published on the Brotherhood's official website on January 12, 2011. His arguments ranged from pointing fingers at America and the Zionists as the greatest beneficiaries of the attack, to blaming the Vatican for its intervention and announcing the full rejection of any foreign interference in Egypt; Bayyumi also re-affirmed that Egypt's point of reference is Islamic. This conflation between the culprits and the beneficiaries is a common tactic used by forces that doubtlessly reject such deplorable acts, but are unwilling to enter into a real confrontation with the culture, institutions, and political regime that breed them. Thus, they remain attached to the slogans that make a large portion of non-Muslim citizens feel slighted and alienated from their own homeland. Simply making declarations of condemnations   without challenging  the culture that leads to such events, and without announcing in a clear uncompromising manner that the homeland is for all and that the state is the point of reference for all its citizens, is a behavior that condones discrimination between citizens, even if the condemnations of the bombing were true and sincere. reject all forms of violence including the terrorizing of Christian and Muslim civilians. We can gleam the position of the

Angry responses erupted in Egypt and the Arab and Islamic world after the Vatican Pope and the French President Nicholas Sarkozy made statements on the alleged threat facing Christians in the Orient. In the New Year's address delivered by Sarkozy to France's religious leaders in the Elysée (on January 1, 2011), the French President said that his country is concerned with what he called "blind violence," adding "We cannot accept, and thereby facilitate, what is shaping up to be a perverse program of cleansing in the Middle East, religious cleansing - in Iraq as in Egypt, the Christians of the Orient are in their homeland, and they have mostly been there for past 2000 years. We cannot accept that human, cultural, and religious diversity that is the norm in France, Europe and the majority of Western countries vanishes from that part of the world."[50]

Simultaneously, Pope Benedict XVI was urging world leaders to protect the Christian minorities of the Orient. In his customary gathering with the ambassadors of the world nations at the Vatican for the New Year, the head of the Catholic Church called on the governments and leaders of the Middle East "to work on making their Christian citizens live in peace". In his address, which caused anger on several levels in the Arab and Islamic world, and was viewed as an act of interference in the domestic affairs of sovereign nations, the Pope announced that the successive attacks against Christians are a clear indication that effective measures need to be taken".[51]

In a theatrical move and feigned outrage (we say this especially after the links were exposed between the bombings and the Egyptian regime), Egypt recalled its ambassador in the Vatican as a reaction to what it considered to be unacceptable interference in its domestic affairs. In tandem, al Azhar suspended its dialogue with the Vatican for failing to clarify the Pope's recent statements, which could - apparently - be interpreted in different ways. The Pope demanded the protection of Egypt's Copts without naming a specific authority for this task. This could be viewed by Egypt as not representing an affront to its sovereignty, since it is the state, and the state and the law in Egypt are expected to assume this protection. The chair of the National Council for Human Rights, Boutros Ghali, said that the statements of European leaders on the protection of minorities were not a transgression on internal Egyptian affairs, but that these comments "are part of the Globalization phenomenon, and the emergence of a new current commenting on Human Rights [sic] issues among the nations." Egyptian author Emile Amin agreed, arguing that the Pope's comments were not an invitation for foreign intervention, and that it is not in the best interest of Arab and Muslim countries to have their relations shaken "with a spiritual and diplomatic power spanning the globe"; for such an event would benefit "other powers that lurk fearing any Muslim-Christian rapprochement in our present times".[52]

In truth, it is impossible to dissociate the West's concern for the protection of minorities in the Orient from the tools of colonial intervention in the Middle East. Naturally, some Western reactions are not devoid of naked and direct incitement for foreign intervention, and can only be read as assuming the existence of a Muslim-Christian conflict. The General Director of the French Association for the Victims of Terrorism, Guillaume Denoix de Saint Marc, said that these Western statements need to be seen in context, and that the focus should be on the spread of terrorism in the region; terrorists believe that they are pressuring Westerners by attacking Christians, Saint Marc mentioned his disappointment for the lack of reaction on the part of Western societies.[53] He seemingly intends to affirm that the assaults on Oriental Christians are a continuation of the same struggle against the West. In reality, such statements, which resemble the colonialist arguments used during instances of intervention in the Ottoman Empire, with European powers competing over zones of influence claiming the protection of Christians - such statements tend to create and perpetuate the current reality, rather than improve it. And, as we now know, serious doubts are cast upon that brutish political regime, which is an ally of the West, possibly bearing the responsibility for these bombings. 

Occasionally, calls reverberate in the West for the necessity of Western intervention to "protect the Christians of the Orient," and such calls have been made with greater audacity as of late. In that sense, the Arab Region seems to be reincarnating the state of the Ottoman Empire in the 19th[54] But this interpretation is not sufficient, we must also examine the underlying causes within the national societies that invite this form of interventions and allow it to occur. From this perspective, Jamal Asad Abd al-Malak, an Egyptian Coptic activist and intellectual, argues that the best response would be to view the Coptic question as an issue that must be resolved within the Egyptian national arena so as to mend a vulnerability that could be exploited by foreign intervention.[55] Such an approach, however, requires acknowledging the problem, not denying it or viewing it as slander and defamation by foreigners. Century. This Western resolve to impose sectarian and religious divisions in Arab countries could emanate from the fact that such a perspective is "the objective and natural negation of the Ideology of National Arab integration".

Other commentators and observers criticize the prevailing civic and cultural conditions in Egypt; Boutros Boutros Ghali argued that the incident occurred because of a deficiency in the Egyptian educational system, and the lack of respect for human rights in the country.[56] Similarly, in his article "Egypt, a Cultural Disaster," Egyptian scholar and columnist Mamun Fandy critiques the approach of the media and cultural circles in dealing with the Coptic Question, describing it as emotional, superficial, and neglectful of the role of the state and the civil society in resolving the crisis.[57]

Salafism in Egypt and its Relationship with the Copts

The leaders of the Salafist current in Egypt condemned the recent Alexandria bombing. Sheikh Abu Ishaq al-Huwaini announced through his official website that this incident is "not permissible according to Islamic law," and that its purpose is the sowing of sedition in the country. He added in the same statement that the Muslim scholars "are the immunity system for the nation". Other notable Salafi scholars also condemned the attack, such as Sheikh Muhammad Hassan, through a widely distributed on the Internet appearance on "al-Rahma" channel.[58]

The Egyptian society in general, and the Egyptian cyberspace in particular, witnesses a sharp sectarian divide, whose flames are fanned by extremists who continually spread libels and stereotypes about the adherents of the other faith on both sides. The current Salafist literature in Egypt provides a rich material for this sort of polarization; if we were to focus on Salafist writings and discourse, we would conclude that this anti-Coptic current in Egypt is visible in the cultural scene through two mediums: Islamic television channels and fatwas.

Islamic Television Channels:

A group of Egyptian youth organized an online campaign against the "channels of extremism". On the online social network, Facebook, the campaign's slogan was "Stop them for Egypt's sake"; the Facebook page of the campaign, whose members numbered in the thousands, included several video clips of talks and fatwas by Salafi sheikhs, including Abu Ishaq al-Huwaini, Wajdi Ghoneim, and Husain Yaqub. These fatwas were seen by many writers and politicians as extremist opinions that threaten social life in Egypt, as was shown in a reportage published by pro-regime Rose al-Yusuf magazine before the Revolution. In it, the vice-director of the National Book Authority said: "unfortunately, this Salafist current that is represented by the television Tsars and preachers has become difficult to control, since it is experiencing the height of its accumulative growth"[59]. A number of channels were closed down after facing lawsuits that accused them of sectarian incitement. The al-Yawm al-Sabi newspaper reported that the administrative court of the Council of the State allowed the resumption of five of these channels: al-Badr, al-Hafiz, Safa, al-Rahma and Wisal.[60]

It should be noted here that the very same youth circles that used social networking tools, like Facebook, to urge the people into the streets after the torture and death of Khalid Saeed, and then to call for "a day of rage" on January 25th 2011, were also the catalyst for the calls against Salafist channels and sectarian agitation.

After his "Rahma" (Mercy) channel was closed down for allegedly spreading sectarian material, Sheikh Muhammad Hassan told al-Arabiya.net that his channel "dealt with this [sic] kind of issues with objectivity and rationality, which Christians themselves testify to," adding "I do not claim that no mistakes were committed by some channels, to err is normal, but should such mistakes be corrected by gagging mouths and full amputations, or by counseling, directing, and warning before the channel is taken off the air?"

Fatwas

Egypt saw the spread of anti-Salafist mood, which is not exclusively related to the Alexandria bombing and possibilities of their implication in the attack, primarily because of the strict and austere position of Salafist groups - of all kinds - towards non-Muslims as well as towards Muslims who are not on their path.

Egyptian political writer and columnist, Rifat Sayyid Ahmad presented a recent study entitled "the Complete Documents of the Salafists' Fatwas against Egypt's Copts,"[61] which exposed the fatwas that argued for the imposition of the Jizya levy on Christians, and forbid saluting them, as well as the offering of felicitations on their holidays; additionally, the fatwas argued for the impermissibility of executing a Muslim for a non-believer, and of allowing them to assume important posts. For example, in a religious tape, "al-Wala wal Bara,"[62] (loyalty and enmity) the Salafi Sheikh Abu Ishaq al-Huwaini says that the Jizya levy must be imposed on Christians and that the Christian must pay it "with a bowed head" (the Sheikh used a derogatory slang term). His use of derogatory terms clearly betrayed a lack of any social or national estimation for the Christian, confirming that the Salafist discourse emanates from a uniquely doctrinal approach that led to a "closed structure" that cannot coexist with the civic and national approach, a necessity for any modern nation-state.

Ahmad's study was distinguished by a documentation of the Salafists' fatwas. He used recordings of their lectures, as well as books and websites belonging to sheikhs and others associated with the Salafi ideology, such as the "Sawt al-Salaf" website affiliated with the Salafist school in Alexandria.[63] The dominant strand of Salafism in Egypt right now is greatly influenced by the Salafism of the Gulf countries, which may explain the absence of direct acts of protest by the movement against the state. Mainstream Salafism in the Gulf is dubbed "official" Salafism because it is supported by the state since it focuses on the social and doctrinal dimensions while remaining distant from political affairs. Doctrinally, these currents view the ruler or the regime as a "Guardian," in the religious sense, who is legally ordained to rule, such opinions are based on a rich literature in the Salafist doctrine. However, the other Salafist wing, "Jihadi" Salafism, is also replete with a literature permitting extremist views on war, the use of violence against official authority, and the continuous effort to create an Islamic society in the full sense, by any means.

The absence of reactions from Salafi leaders in Egypt to the government's continual persecution, arrest and torture of Salafists may push some of the younger, angry, Salafists out of their current groups and into the Jihadi wing of the movement, as has happened in the Arabian Peninsula. On Internet sites, we encounter furious young Salafis who say that the state treats them as metaphorical "sacrificial lambs," whom it can oppress as it pleases. There was a noted rise in this tone of anger among the Salafi youth following the Alexandria bombing, when hundreds of them were rounded up by the state, and the young Salafi Sayyid Bilal was killed under police torture, as claimed by his family.

There is also a common refrain among some Egyptians, heard in private conversations and on the Internet, claiming that Salafism is an intruder in Egypt and that Egyptian society is - by nature - diverse and open, and that "outside influences," such as the Niqab for women or wearing robes for men, are not part of Egyptian customs. This line of argument usually adds that the growth and spread of these manifestations places society in a state of division and internal alienation, with men and women being judged and evaluated according to their outwardly behavior, or even their mere appearance.

This increase in the meting out of value judgments and evaluations between the members of society, and the ease with which such arbitrary opinions are formulated, is sufficient by itself to create a state of division and social fragmentation, or, at the least, enshrine such phenomena, even if only on the level of perception. By pushing debate to extremes, differences become pronounced and people tend to polarize, "this one is with us and that one against us". The anger of large sectors of society was apparent in the Alexandria demonstrations following the bombing when a large portion of the slogans and banners that were raised stressed notions of fraternity between Christians and Muslims. It could well be argued that this reaction - of confirming solidarity - was not merely a response to the bombing, but an expression of generalized popular malaise with the socio-cultural scene and the infighting and strife, all taking place in the shadow of a ruling regime that has become devoid of popular support.

Clerics' statements could adversely affect relations between citizens because the religious elites are often overly strict in the application of their beliefs and teachings, and they jealously guard the lines of demarcation separating them from other religious elites on the doctrinal level. But a society would be tainted if such practices seeped into the everyday lives of individuals who are expected to undergo their social lives in a frame of normalcy, without having to constantly think of doctrinal differences. It would be extremely difficult for a community to face its economic and political challenges when busied with such "unnecessary battles" that complicate and escalate latent problems. In saying "unnecessary battles" we refer to internal conflicts that are the result of sectarian difference that thrives on dividing people and increasing tension between them, despite the fact that religious, and even ideological, difference is a natural phenomenon that should not incite hostility.

Men of religion try to seize any opportunity to accentuate religious differences within their clergy and followers, even if religion and society do not encourage this. The perpetuation of differences and particularity increases the loyalty of the community towards its respective elites since they are the ones producing the discourse of difference, guarding its lines of demarcation, and are the guardians of the community within the frame of this sectarian discourse. For instance, the bulk of the Salafi rhetoric, during times of crises, is one that stresses the importance of following Salafist Orthodoxy, in order to guide the individual. An example of this can be witnessed in Sheikh Abu Ishaq al-Huwaini's statement following the recent Alexandria bombing, which he published on his official website. The statement claimed that the solution lies in enlightening the public "with Islamic legal rules and protocols ... and opening the door to the efforts of godly scholars." Therefore, the crisis becomes an asset in support of the existing demarche, without rousing a moment of honesty and self-criticism from the speaker, in order to revise their manner of dealing with things, and to investigate whether their methods had a role in exacerbating the situation.

In the same sources, we find numerous fatwas that are devoid of all considerations of nationalism, coexistence, and association between citizens of the same country which can be illustrated through the rhetoric of the Salafi sheikh Abu Muhammad Bin Abdullah Bin Abd al-Hameed al-Athary: "You are strictly prohibited from congratulating the infidels with greeting card or a holiday card, and you should also not accept a holiday card from them, but should reject it, and should never stop work during this day [e.g., Christian holidays]"[64]  

Furthermore, the Salafi preacher Mahmud al-Masri ruled in a fatwa that initiative should never be taken in saluting non-Muslims, and not even the use of terms like "welcome," because that would aggrandize their stature, as he argued in his book.[65] In this instance, we note the use of unwarranted terms without justification; why the need to employ terms like "aggrandize," "degrade," or "mimic"? Salutations are an ordinary behavior practiced by all people in their ordinary social lives, so why the need to imbue these practices with such values that are present neither in the religious doctrine nor in social custom. As we argued earlier, the state of conflict and polarization increase the fanatic adherents as a matter of course.

As critics argue, these fatwas produce sharp differentiations in society; pro-regime Rose al-Yusuf magazine published an article that was written by someone who was especially close to the security services of the Mubarak regime, claiming that Salafism is expanding in the country while its adherents live in their isolated world that separates itself from its society; the threat of Salafism, from his perspective, is that it carries - despite its overt pacifism - "a transformative acculturation" that gradually turns the Salafi into a Jihadist.[66] Such views are opposed by others; in an article that was widely circulated in Salafi circles, Ali Abd al-Al wrote that Salafism, despite being a victim to violence, repression, and prison by the state, has never gone the path of escalation and confrontation[67].

Conclusion 

What becomes clear is the existence of an open Coptic Question that requires handling. Any serious attempt at a solution must begin with a serious will and intent to engage the subject, because empty claims are not sufficient. This intent was not available in the former Egyptian regime, but was possibly to the exact contrary.

But any new regime in Egypt with the intention of engaging the matter must acknowledge the existence of a Coptic Question, which is composed of several issues that touch on the identity of the state and the treatment of Copts as a minority, and as a state that is in need of "tolerance". The danger for Copts is that they are not in need of "tolerance", nor do they represent a different bloc of opinion that can be approached in a tolerant, pluralistic manner. Copts are authentic citizens who cannot bear, due to their self-perception, any form of discrimination. Therefore, the key to approaching the Question is equal citizenship.

Democracy is the suitable frame for such an approach, but the neglect of the sectarian problem, and the failure to combat the acceptance of religion in the state could turn democracy into breeding ground for the escalation of the crisis because of the newfound freedom to voice and express it. Parting from these conclusions, a treatment of the Coptic Question becomes an utmost necessity.

*Abdulaziz Alhies, Maha Qassim, Nadine Lotfy, Nerouz Satik, Hamzeh Almoustafa, Omayma Abdel-Latif

 -----------------------------

• [1] From an article by Azmi Bishara, "The Great Egyptian Revolution", ACRPS website, the Doha Institute, February 2011 http://english.dohainstitute.org/Home/Details?entityID=5ea4b31b-155d-4a9f-8f4d-a5b428135cd5&resourceId=db353bc5-3dd7-413e-8fc5-65301b7c5dcc
• [2]Ahmad Fathy, "Muzahara bi Jami Amr Lilmutalaba Bi Awdat Kamilia Shehata" (Demonstration in Amr Mosque demanding the return of Camellia Shehata), Al-Shuruq newspaper, 6/9/2010 http://www.shorouknews.com/ContentData.aspx?id=292644
• [3] A statement by the General Guide of al-Ikhwan al-Muslimeen, Muhammad Badi, al-Masri al-Youm, March 10, 2011
• [4] Hasan Nafia, "The Assault against the Atfeeh Church", al-Masri al-Youm, Issue 2460, March 9, 2011
• [5] Mamduh Hassan, "Atfeeh: al-Qariya Al-Lati Taqif Fi Wajh al-Thawra" (Atfeeh: the village standing against the revolution), al-Shuruq, Issue 767, March 9, 2011
• [6] Abu Seif, Yusef, Al-Aqbat Wal Qawmiya al-Arabiya (Copts and Arab Nationalism), Beirut: Center for Arab Unity Studies, 1987, 1st edition, p 15
• [7] http://www.embassyofegypt.be/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=23:religious-freedoms-in-egypt&catid=1:articles-fixes
• [8] Abdel Salam Baghdadi, Al-Wihda al-Wataniya Wa Mushkilat al-Aqalliyat Fi Afriqia (National Unity and the Question of Minorities in Africa), 2nd Edition, Beirut: Center for Arab Unity Studies, 2000, p 147
• [9] Fadwa al-Nusairat, al-Masihyiun al-Arab wa Fikrat al-Qawmiya al-Arabiya (Arab Christians and the Concept of Arab Nationalism), Beirut: Center for Arab Unity Studies, 2009, p 64
• [10] Jack Tajir, Aqbat wa Muslimun min al fath al arabi ila aam 1922 (Copts and Muslims, from the Arab Conquest until 1922 ), new edition, Cairo: al-Hay'a al-Misriya Lil-Kitab, 1952, Pp241-253
• [11] Saleem al-Najeeb, "Al-Aqbat fi al-Ahd al-Mamluki wal Jamhuri" (Copts in the Mamluk and Republican Eras) http://www.coptichistory.org/new_page_4313.htm
• [12] Yusef Abu Seif, Al-Aqbat Wal Qawmiya al-Arabiya (Copts and Arab Nationalism), Beirut: Center for Arab Unity Studies, 1987, 1st edition, p 152
• [13] Saleem Najeeb, "Awda al-Aqbat Qabl Wa Bad Thawrat Yuliu" (the Conditions of Copts Before and After the July Revolution), al-Hiwar al-Mutamaddin website 28/6/2003 http://www.ahewar.org/debat/show.art.asp?aid=8257
• [14] Yusef Abu Seif, p 153
• [15] Ghali Shukri, Al-Aqbat Fi Watan Mutaghayir (Copts in a Changing Homeland), Cairo: al-Shuruq Publishing, 1991, p 61
• [16] Usama Salama, Al-Aqbat Fi Misr, first edition, Cairo: al-Khayal Publishing, 2002, p 217
• [17] Muhammad al-Sayyid Husain, al-Nizaat al-Ahliya al-Arabiya: al-Awamil al-Dakhiliya wal Kharijiya,(Arab Civil Conflicts: the Indigenous and the Exogenous Factors), 2nd edition, Beirut: Center for Arab Unity Studies, 2001, P 175
• [18] Muhammad Saeed al-Ashmawi, Al-Islam al-Siyasi, (Political Islam), 1st edition, Cairo: Sinai Publishing, 1987, p 179
• [19] "What is the Number of Copts in the Egyptian Parliament?" Kalima Website http://www.alkalema.net/persecuate/persecuate13.htm
• [20] Abd al-Salam Ibraheem al-Baghdadi, al-Wihda al-Wataniya wa Mushkilat al-Aqaliyat fi Afriqia (National Unity and the Problem of Minorities in Africa), 2nd edition, Beirut: Center for Arab Unity Studies, 2000, p150
• [21] Muhammad al-Ajrudi, "Misr Tarudd ala Mazaim al-Tamyiz Didd al-Aqbat (Egypt Rebuts Claims of Discrimination Against the Copts), al-Ahram Newspaper, Year 131, issue 44004, 30/5/2007
• [22] Fikri Abdeen, "al-Qahira Thilth Tharwat Misr Bi Yad al-Aqbat" (Cairo: A Third of Egypt's Wealth in the Hands of Copts), Islam Online website, 30/5/2007  http://www.islamonline.net/servlet/Satellite?c=ArticleA_C&pagename=Zone-Arabic-News/NWALayout&cid=1180421166600
• [23] Adel Gunidy, "Symbolic Victim in a Socially Regressing Egypt: the Declining Situation of the Copts", Middle East Review of International Affairs,Vol 14, No1, March 2010, p 85
• [24] Izzat Andraous, "Hukumat Misr wa Idtihad al-Aqbat fi al-Taleem", (Government of Egypt and the discrimination against Copts in Education), Encyclopedia of Egyptian Coptic History, 17/6/2010 http://www.coptichistory.org/new_page_985.htm
• [25] Unsigned, "Jadal Bi Misr Bisha'n Kitab Jami'en Lil Adyan" (Debate in Egypt over a Cross-Religious Book), Aljazeera.net 18/4/2010
• [26] Unsigned, "Misr Tueed al-Nadhar Bil Mahahij al-Tarbawiya fi Madarisiha" (Egypt Reconsiders Educational Curricula in its Schools), Al-Khaleej newspaper, 27/4/2010
• [27] It should be mentioned that the building of both churches and mosques requires that ten legal conditions be fulfilled, some observers of the Coptic scene, such as the scholar Hani Labeeb, opine that these conditions are not a reflection of discrimination against the Copts as much as they are a routine procedure established to organize the building of religious temples. (See Hani Labeeb, Coptic Issues, al-Marifa Journal) www.marefa.com
  Some argue that, in fact, conditions for building mosques are extremely strict, among those requirements is that "the donor must deposit a sum of at least 50,000 Pounds as a guarantor of the seriousness of the endeavor", which is not required for the building of churches. Many calls were made in recent years to unify legislation concerning houses of religion, through a single legislation that can be applied to all sects without exceptions (both churches and mosques).
  The ten conditions for the building of churches are:
  -Is the intended location an agricultural land or an empty lot? Is it owned or rented? The tenure should be proven with sufficient property deeds.
  -What is the distance between the intended church and local Muslim mosques and cemeteries?
  -If the intended location is an empty plot, is the area mostly inhabited by Muslims or Christians?
  -If it were located within Muslim-majority areas, is there a valid argument against the project?
  -Does the sect in question have a church in the locality besides the proposed one?
  -If there were no other nearby churches, what is the distance between the locality and the closest church for the same denomination in a nearby town?
  -What is the number of the sect members in the said town?
  If the intended location is close to the Nile bridges, canals, and irrigation facilities, the irrigation administration must be consulted.
  -This same rule applies if the location is close to railway lines and buildings.
  -An official report is to be drafted with these inquiries, detailing public buildings in the vicinity of the church location, as well as the distance between the church's plot and each of the said public properties; the report must be sent to the ministry.
  -The applicant must include with his application a design plan with a 1/1000 scale, signed by the spiritual head of the sect, the engineer who studied the intended location, and the administration responsible for investigating the facts; they must also note the results in a report attached to the application.
  -However, it is doubtless that the reigning culture among state bureaucrats, or National Party officials, is one that would create forms of discrimination where none exist per the legal texts. 
• [28] Gerges Bushra, "Al-Qada' al-Misri Yursi Mabda'an Qanuniyan Bi Tarmeem al-Kana'is fi Misr Dun al-Haja Ila Tasareeh min Jihat al-Idara" (Egyptian Courts Establish new Legal Framework for the Renovation of Churches in Egypt without the Need for Permission from the Administration), United Copts Newspaper, 4/4/2010 http://copts-united.com/Arabic2011/Article.php?I=745&A=16153
• [29] Adel Gunidy, Ibid
• [30]Ala' al-Aswani, Hal Nastahiqq al-Deemoqratiya? (Do we Deserve Democracy?), Cairo: al-Shuruq Publishing 2010, P 48
• [31] Ibid, P 49
• [32] Muhammad Nur Farhat, "al-Deen wal Dustir fi Misr" (Religion and the Constitution in Egypt), research paper 20/7/2010 http://www.pidegypt.org/download/Constitutional-forum/farahat.pdf
• [33] Tariq al-Bishri, Al Muslimun Wal Aqbat Fi Itar Al Jama'a Wataniyya (Muslims and Copts in the Context of the National Community), Cairo, al-Hay'a al-Misriya al-Amma lil Kitab, 1980, p703
• [34] Rashid al-Ghannushi "al-Hurriya Awwalan" (Freedom First), al-Jazeera net, 21/11/2009 http://www.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/2BE40DAB-B13C-4BE9-BB89-99ED05C92804.htm
• [35] Abu al-Futuh, "I Reject the Constitution of a Muslim Brotherhood Political Party in Egypt", interview with Islam Online website, 13/3/2011 http://www.islamonline.net/ar/IOLArticle_C/1278407571182/1278406720653/IOLArticle_C
• [36] Among the signs of this changing mood, al-masry al-Youmnd, 2011) stating that a telephone call was made between Pope Shnoda and the General Guide of the Ikhwan Muhammad Badee, who stressed that the current phase requires solidarity, pointing to his good relations with the Copts, and that he maintains a close relationship with the Bishops in Bani Sweif, the governorate in which he was born and raised. Sources claimed that Badee offered a dialogue initiative with the Coptic youth, given the state of worry and trepidation of the Brotherhood assuming the reins of authority. newspaper published a news item (March 22
  Three organizations representing the Egyptian Christian youth accepted the initiative of the Bortherhood's Guide, which aims at holding direct meetings with young Christian activists, with the purpose of clarifying the position of the Ikhwan on various matters, and to assuage the fears of Egyptian Christians vis-à-vis the current political developments in the country.
  These three organizations are: The Christian Youth Union Party (under formation), the International Union of Christian Students, and the General Committee for the Christian Youth Commission; the latter agreed to host the first meeting between the two sides in its offices in Gamhuriya Street in Downtown Cairo, upon the request of the Christian youth. 
• [37] Al-Bishri, Ibid P 738
• [38] Fadwa Nusairat, Ibid, P 11
• [39] Abd al-Haleem Qandeel, "Man Yaqtul al-Aqbat?" (Who is Killing the Copts?), al-Quds al-Arabi, 10/1/2011
• [40] Farhat, Ibid
• [41] Saad Eddin Ibrahim, "The Copts of Egypt", Minority Rights Group International (1996), a report. http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/pdfid/469cbf8ed.pdf
• [42] Farhat Ibid
• [43] Fahmy al-Hwaidy, "As'ilat al-Fajia" (Questioning Calamity), al-Jazeera net, 5/1/2011 http://www.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/53E0B994-5227-4652-9D75-6D0A82C8E956.htm
• [44] Mamduh Ramzi to al-Sharq al-Awsat, "I Reject the Second Article of the Constitution", al-Sharq al-Awsat, 19/2/2011
• [45] http://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/02/world/middleeast/02egypt.html?_r=1
• [46] http://articles.latimes.com/2011/jan/04/world/la-fg-egypt-copts-20110104
• [47] http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2011/jan/4/when-muslims-kill-christians
• [48] Share your opinions: "Your Opinions": The Repercussions of the Two Martyr-Saints church bombing in Egypt, Reported on BBC Arabic 1/1/2011
• [49] Shown on al-Jazeera's "Bila Hudud", 15/9/2010
• [50] On Islam Network, "Sarkozy: There is a Religious Plot Against the Christians of the Orient" http://www.onislam.net/arabic/newsanalysis/newsreports/islamic-world/127651-2011-01-07-13-51-54.html
• [51] Kuwaiti News Agency, "The Pope Calls Upon Mid-East Governments and Muslim Leaders to Guarantee the Safety of Christians", 10/1/2011 http://www.kuna.net.kw/NewsAgencyPublicSite/ArticleDetails.aspx?id=2136838&Language=ar
• [52] Emile Amin, "Min al-Qahira ila al-Vatican: Azma am Sahabat Sayf?", (From Cairo to the Vatican, Crisis or a Passing Trifle?), al-Sharq al-Awsat, 18/1/2011
• [53] Al-Jazeera, "Ma Wara' al-Khabar: Western Statements for the Protection of the Orient's Christians", shown on 10/1/2011
• [54] Abd al-Azeem Hammad, "Man Yureed Fard al-Ta'ifiya Ala Misr?" (Who Wishes to Impose Sectarianism in Egypt?), Al-Ahram Newspaper, 10/1/2011
• [55] Al-Jazeera, Ma Wara' al-Khabar: The Dimensions of the Alexandria Church Attack, shown on 3/1/2011
• [56] http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2011/1030/eg2.htm
• [57] Ma'mun Fandy, "Misr: Karitha Thaqafiya!" (Egypt: a Cultural Disaster!), al-Sharq al-Awsat, 6/1/2011
• [58] Can be found on: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WLI-8YyC4f0&feature=player_embedded
• [59] Nimat Majdi, "Maseer Mashayekh al-Takhalluf Bad ighlaq Qanawat al-Jahiliya", (The Fate of Backwardness Sheikhs After the Closure of al Jahiliyya Channels), Rose al-Yusuf, 16/10/2010
• [60] Al-Yawm al-Sabi Newspaper, Saturday 27/11/2010
• [61] Rifat Sayyid Ahmad, "Al-Watha'iq al-Kamila Li Fatawa al-Salafyieen Didd Aqbat Misr" (The Complete Documents of the Salafists' Fatwas against the Copts of Egypt", Rose al-Yusuf, 22/1/2011
• [62] Rif'at Sayyed Ahmad, Ibid
• [63] Ali Abdel Al, "al Salafiiyyoun Wal Mawkef Minal Taseed Amam Al Dawla" (The Salafis and the Position Regarding the Escalation Against the Government), al Watan newspaper, 0/1/2011
• [64] Abu Muhammad Bin Abdullah Bin Abd al-Hameed al-Athary, "Al-Ihtifal Bi Ra's al-Sana wa Mushabahat Ashab al-Jaheem" (Celebrating New Year's and the Mimicking of the People of Hell), Tawheed Magazine, Issue 23/8. P 20.
• [65] Mahmud al-Masri, Tahdheer al-Sajid min Akhta' al-Ibadat wal Aqa'id(Warning the Worshipper from Mistakes of Cults and Doctrines), reference in Rifat Sayyid Ahmad, Ibid
• [66] Abdallah Kamal, "The Threat of Salafism", Rose al-Yusuf, 11/1/2011. The issue with this writer's articles is that they tend to rely on incitation and that his link to the former regime's security apparatus were unhidden. And he often served as a pen instigating against the opponents of the former regime
• [67] Ali Abd al-Al, Ibid